Effects on the environment that caused the near extinction of caribou in the Northwest and about the last remaining in the Selkirk mountains.

Effects on the Environment that Caused the Near Extinction of the Caribou in the North West and About the Last Remaining in the Selkirk Mountains
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Abstract
The purpose of this essay is to outline and discuss the different impacts on the environment which are responsible for the endangerment and potential extinction of the Caribou in the North West, as well as Selkirk Mountain regions. The essay highlights several factors and influences in this regard, ranging from human activities to climate change and predation. In addition to that, this essay also proposes several solutions for the issue under consideration. Both short-term and long-term methods are discussed and explained by the essay which target the initial reduction in mortality of the Caribou, followed by the eventual eradication of the root causes, like climate change, accidents or deforestation which are leading towards the endangerment in the first place. The short-term propositions put forward by the essay range from proper implementation of laws and predator control, while long-term recommendations include control of harmful human activities like excessive timber harvesting or mining in forest areas.
Effects on the Environment that Caused the Near Extinction of the Caribou in the North West and About the Last Remaining in the Selkirk Mountains
The Woodland Caribou or Rangifer tarandus caribou are present in seven provinces and two territories of Canada. The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC), in 2002, issued a statement which referred to the Woodland Caribou as a ‘threatened’ species (Environment Canada, 2011).

The number of Woodland Caribou in the North West and Selkirk Mountain regions has been decreasing for the past few decades. The aforementioned decline has been more prominent since the year 2000- before that, the Woodland Caribou were widely distributed and had a significant population. The decline and near extinction of the Woodland Caribou is attributable to a number of environmental and human-induced factors ranging from predation and habitat loss to accidents with motor vehicles.
The distribution of the Caribou is shown in the following map:

(Festa-Bianchet, Ray, Boutin, Côté & Gunn, 2011)
The following figure clearly depicts the declining trend in the South Selkirk subpopulation of the Woodland Caribou:

(Wiles, 2017)
According to Environment Canada (2011), the Woodland Caribou require large, widely spread areas as habitats. This is due to the fact that it allows for a wide distribution of the Caribou population, making it less likely for them to be subject to predator attacks. This phenomenon is easily observed in regions where predators are quite active, such as the boreal region forests. In addition to that, the Caribou need coniferous forests or lichen-rich regions in hilly areas for their survival and proliferation. The decline in the availability of such optimum habitats for the Caribou is undoubtedly one of the most important causes of the decrease in their population. Loss of habitat is a broad term, and itself is influenced by a series of factors. This is summed up by the following figure:

(Festa-Bianchet, Ray, Boutin, Côté & Gunn, 2011)
Timber extraction is a direct threat to the Caribou population. This is because timber extraction directly involves cutting down of trees, which form a critical component of the forest-based habitats of the Caribou (Wittmer, McLellan, Serrouya & Apps, 2007). Apart from the direct reduction in the size of habitats, it has been clearly observed that the Caribou stay away from regions where deforestation activities take place. At times, they remain as far as 4 kilometers from the actual site of deforestation. This further reduces the habitable region available for the Woodland Caribou.
In a similar context, mining activities and oil and gas prospecting also have a two-fold influence on the habitats of the Woodland Caribou. Firstly, these activities result in the destruction of the natural landscape and environment which is critical for the survival and proliferation of the Caribou. In addition to that, according to Festa-Bianchet, Ray, Boutin, Côté & Gunn (2011), Caribou avoid living in regions which are in close proximity to areas where such activities are taking place. Again, this reduces the Woodland Caribou habitat in the same way as timber harvesting and deforestation.
Although loss of habitat is frequently considered as the most important factor promoting the endangerment and potential extinction of the Woodland Caribou from the Northwest and Selkirk Mountains regions, some studies have contrary views. For example, Wiles (2017) clearly states that predation is the most significant reason for the declining Woodland Caribou Population in the Selkirk Mountains region. Naturally, Caribou have certain adaptations to cope with predation and ensure the continuation of their species. However, drastic reduction in the Caribou population makes even small-scale predation an extremely sensitive issue for the organisms.
In addition to that, predation is strongly related to habitat loss too. Firstly, as per Environment Canada (2011), the Caribou adapt to increasing predation by spreading over large areas, thereby reducing population density in one area and decreasing the likelihood of predation. However, loss of habitat reduces the overall area available for the distribution of the Caribou population. As a result, overall population density increases supporting predation. Apart from that, Wiles (2017) further suggests that reduction in the habitat of other species, such as deer, results in their migration towards the Caribou habitat. These migrations bring other predators in the already reduced Caribou habitat, further increasing the risk of predation. The following figure shows the main predator species responsible for the Caribou fatalities in the North and South regions:

(Wittmer, 2004)
Apart from that, studies mention other environmental factors influencing the near extinction of Woodland Caribou as well. The most prominent among them is climate change. According to Festa-Bianchet, Ray, Boutin, Côté & Gunn (2011), climate change is becoming an increasingly dangerous threat for the Caribou. It consists of several distinct elements, as illustrated in the upcoming figure:

(Festa-Bianchet, Ray, Boutin, Côté & Gunn, 2011)
According to Wittmer (2004), climate changes, particularly variations in snowfall and snow accumulation can have lasting impacts on the Woodland Caribou population. This point is further supported by a study conducted by Environment Canada (2011), which suggests that variations in snowfall can negatively impact population growth. This is attributable to the fact that it influences the distribution of populations, giving rise to smaller groups which exhibit smaller growth rates due to high calf-mortality, disproportionate numbers of males and females and increased likelihood of fatalities caused by random events like spread of disease.
In addition to that, the occurrence of forest fires also depends upon climatic conditions and variations. According to Wiles (2017), forest fires are strongly associates with loss of habitat, as well as increased predation. Fires in old growth forests, which are generally inhabited by Woodland Caribou destroy their habitat and force them to look for other habitable regions. In addition to that, wildfires also result in the creation of vast areas consisting of ‘early succession’ forests. These forests are home to moose, and migration of these animals to such areas results in the introduction of numerous predators like bears, wolves and cougars in the vicinity of Caribou, resulting in increased mortality of the concerned species.
Furthermore, global warming, yet another devastating element of climate change, also has a series of impacts upon the Caribou population. According to Wittmer (2004), global warming can cause widespread melting of snow, reducing the accumulation of snow in areas inhabited by the Woodland Caribou. This can make the regions more favorable for deer, resulting in an increase in their populations over there. Again, the migration of deer into Caribou habitats can result in the introduction of more predators, thereby increasing the predation and mortality of Caribou. Moreover, higher temperature can result in migration of Caribou to more suitable regions, reducing their habitats, increasing their population density in certain areas and again, supporting increased predation.
In addition to that, several studies also cite human factors, involvement and activities as important factors participating in the endangerment of the Caribou. Hunting, for example, is a major threat to the current Caribou population. Although hunting of the considered species has been banned, illegal hunting continues to contribute towards Caribou mortalities. This issue has been intensified by the use of modern technology like improved weapon and Global Positioning System (GPS) for locating and killing animals. According to Environment Canada (2011) accidents with snowmobiles cause a decent proportion of Caribou casualties and present a significant risk for them.
Some studies, however, argue that nutritional deficiencies and imbalances are among the most crucial causes of Caribou fatalities and deaths. Wiles (2017), for example, cites malnutrition as one of the causes behind Caribou fatalities in the Selkirk Mountains region. According to Environment Canada (2011), nutritional deficiencies mainly effect Caribou calves rather than adults. In all, malnutrition results in death of these animals before they can reach the reproductive age and contribute towards population growth. The following figure provides insights into some of the leading causes of Caribou deaths along with the number of deaths caused by them in different seasons of the year:

(Wittmer, 2004)
The conservation and recovery of the Woodland Caribou in the outlined regions can be achieved by the proper use of scientific and environmental knowledge, appropriate allocation of resources and effective landscape management (Environment Canada, 2011). Although numerous conservation efforts have been put up in the past, and continue to spring up nowadays, further steps can be taken to improve the current situation. A series of short-term and long-term measures, if taken appropriately, can aid in the conservation and revival of Caribou populations.
Short-term steps, targeted at reducing Caribou mortality involve reduction of hunting and predation. One way of reducing predation is launching predator control programs which can hunt down or drive away predators from Caribou habitats (Festa-Bianchet, Ray, Boutin, Côté & Gunn, 2011). Such programs may require extensive management efforts if alternative prey, like deer or moose, have already entered Caribou habitats. This is because the entry of these animals is generally accompanied by the introduction of their predators, which makes the situation much more complicated. The reduction of hunting and poaching, however, is more to do with stringent implementation of laws. As stated earlier, Caribou hunting is banned, but continues to progress illegally. Stricter implementation of laws can reduce illegal hunting, capture and smuggling of Caribou, thereby reducing their mortality.
However, according to numerous studies, eradicating the root causes behind the endangerment are more important than reducing mortality. Festa-Bianchet, Ray, Boutin, Côté & Gunn (2011), for instance, argue that mere reduction of Caribou mortality is not enough and needs to be coupled with the eradication of root causes of their endangerment in the long term. Numerous solutions can be used for this purpose, ranging from preservation of habitats to proper control of human activities.
Since the Woodland Caribou are favored by old-growth forests, it is imperative for concerned authorities to support the growth and development of these forests. In addition to that, these efforts need to be accompanied by the preservation of existing old-growth forests (Wiles, 2017). The preservation of existing habitats may involve the reduction of forest fires, as well as their control when necessary. Similarly, effective implementation of laws pertaining to deforestation and logging is also important in this regard. Controlled timber harvesting is extremely crucial for the preservation of existing habitats.
In addition to that, Environment Canada (2011) explicitly states the conservation of any species, including the Caribou requires the establishment of multiple populations units across various habitable regions in the natural range of the species. This implies that the creation of new habitats, recovery of old habitats and preservation of existing habitats along with the translocation of the current Caribou population can be helpful in the preservation of the species.
Apart from the preservation of habitats, the control of human activities, like mining, construction and recreation can be helpful in solving the issue under consideration. It is known that the Caribou prefer isolation and refrain from living in areas where mining and construction activities are common. As a result, careful planning and land management is essential for solving the problem (Festa-Bianchet, Ray, Boutin, Côté & Gunn, 2011). Refraining from certain activities, such as the construction of roads passing through forests, initiation of mining or prospecting in forest areas and uncontrolled industrial activities near Caribou habitats can help in resolving the issue.
In addition to that, proper control of recreational activities can also aid in the conservation of the Caribou, since many fatalities are caused by recreational activities. Taking measures like the creation of barriers inhibiting entry of snowmobiles and other vehicles in sensitive areas can be vey helpful (Wiles, 2017). Moreover, placing bans on recreational activities during particular times of the year, such as the migratory season can reduce the number of fatalities and aid in resolving the issue.
In addition to that, climate change is also responsible for the endangerment of Caribou in the considered regions (Festa-Bianchet, Ray, Boutin, Côté & Gunn, 2011). Climate change, like global warming is a result of human activities like uncontrolled industrialization and urbanization. Proper control of activities promoting climate change can bring about stead climatic conditions, which can foster the growth, proliferation and survival of the Caribou, therefore helping in the treatment of the issue under consideration.

References
Environment Canada. (2011). Recovery Strategy for the Woodland Caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou), Boreal Population, in Canada (pp. 1-55). Ottawa: Environment Canada.
Festa-Bianchet, M., Ray, J., Boutin, S., Côté, S., & Gunn, A. (2011). Conservation of caribou (Rangifer tarandus) in Canada: an uncertain future. Canadian Journal Of Zoology, 89(5), 419-434.
Wiles, G. (2017). Periodic Status Review for the Woodland Caribou (pp. 1-30). Washington Department of FISH AND WILDLIFE Wildlife Program.
Wittmer, H. (2004). Mechanisms Underlying The Decline Of Mountain Caribou (Rangifer Tarandus Caribou) In British Columbia (pp. 1-116). University of British Columbia.
Wittmer, H., McLellan, B., Serrouya, R., & Apps, C. (2007). Changes in landscape composition influence the decline of a threatened woodland caribou population. Journal Of Animal Ecology, 76(3), 568-579.

Annotated Bibliography
Festa-Bianchet, M., Ray, J., Boutin, S., Côté, S., & Gunn, A. (2011). Conservation of caribou (Rangifer tarandus) in Canada: an uncertain future. Canadian Journal Of Zoology, 89(5), 419-434.
This article revolves around the importance of the Caribou in Canadian culture, their endangerment and possible conservation and recovery. It describes the distribution of the Caribou in Canada and states several threats which influence the different population groups of the species. It considers habitat loss, predation, hunting, human activities and climate loss as important factors influencing the current Caribou population negatively. However, it does not consider malnutrition as an important cause of the endangerment and near extinction of the Caribou. Apart from the discussion of threats, the article also provides several recommendations and strategies for the recovery and conservation of the Caribou.
Wittmer, H., McLellan, B., Serrouya, R., & Apps, C. (2007). Changes in landscape composition influence the decline of a threatened woodland caribou population. Journal Of Animal Ecology, 76(3), 568-579.
This article focuses on identifying the relationships between various habitat-related, climatic and population density-related variables with the endangerment of the Caribou. It describes the influences of habitat loss and ineffective land management on the Caribou population. It considers landscape and habitat related factors as the most important factors driving the endangerment of the Caribou and does not consider predation in great detail. The article also collects data regarding a specified Caribou population and conducts statistical tests to explore the existence of relationships between the variable identified earlier and the Caribou population. The results of the analysis are discussed in the article too.