Introduction to Pharmacy Essay

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Introduction to Pharmacy
Pharmacy is the art of fashioning medicines. Civilization ever since has used drugs to treat illness, to relieve pain, promote health and create euphoria. The traditional man learned through trial and error natural remedies that would best be suited to eradicate various ailments. The earliest uses of drugs include the use of certain roots and herbs. The type of herbs used includes Gall, Aloe, Eden, Coriander, Cumin, Garlic, Hyssop, Mustard, Rose, Rue, Wormwood, Rosemary, Costmary, and Fennel.
Ancient civilization offers evidence such as from ancient Babylon, which gives a record of earliest known arts of the apothecary. In Babylon tables made of clay were used for recording the initial illnesses’ symptoms, directions, and the prescription for investigating. According to legends, Chinese pharmacy originates from Shem Nung, an emperor who investigated the value of medicine of several hundred herbs. Involvement of the Greeks in medicine started by them observing natural effects and causes of disease and produced clearly identifiable descriptions of epidemics and diseases. The Arabs developed natural resource syrups, confections, distilled waters, and alcoholic liquids. In European countries, public pharmacies began to appear in the 17th century (Wutoh).
The Poison Acts in Scotland in 1408 marked an era in pharmacy. The culture rebirth of Europe followed the Black Death and after effects had two main fragments. At first, in the classical world ideas were ventured into and rediscovered.

Secondly, the Europeans initiated world exploration. The invention of printing assisted ideas to spread out of through the entire Europe. In pharmacy and medicine, this made medical books available widely for the very first time. In Europe, apothecary art was rapidly spreading both in sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The development brought forth a desire for the healthcare practitioners to form a Guild. In addition, the passing of the Apothecaries Act of 1815 (Wutoh).
The very First official Pharmacopoeia originated in Florence; it was written in 1498 as a union between the Medical Society and the Guild. The University of Pennsylvania medical faculty and the pharmacists of Philadelphia held a series of meetings in 1821 that resulted in the formation of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. To improve communication among pharmacists; standards for education and apprenticeship were made. The American Pharmaceutical Association (1852) handled quality control of drugs imported and allowed membership to all pharmaceuticals of good character. The first United States Pharmacopoeia (1820) was the work of the medical profession; it was the first book of drug standards from a professional source to achieve national acceptance.
The advertisement of patent medicines formed first great products of the industry involved in advertising, and numerous sales and advertising strategies were brought forth by promoters of patent medicine. The first Coca-cola was first sold as a patent medicine since it was believed to heal a lot of diseases, including impotence, and morphine addiction. Pepsi another patent medicine was introduced by a pharmacist, Bradham in 1893. The journalists known as Muckrakers started to publicize negative instances from both compounds. In 1905, a journal was published which wherein 1906 led to the passage of the first Pure Food and Drug Act. The requirements of the statute were that they are labeled well, and removed the overstated, fraudulent or misleading claims on the labels. The statute was later in 1936 revised so as to ban them.
The pharmaceuticals lacked standardization which made it impossible to get two separate herbal preparations of the same levels due to the differences in the active content. In 1879, Parke, Davis, and Company introduced methods of drugs that were standardized. These methods allowed the possibility of improvement of the consistency of compounds in drugs from a single batch to another.
The period between 1870 and 1920 was transitional for education in pharmaceutical and pharmacy. Various pharmacy schools were created. Professional Standards and Licensure became needed. The administration of medicines by physicians reduced, and there was a rise in the establishment of the drugstore chain. The National Association of Retail Druggists (NARD) was introduced in 1898. This was a fascinating time in medicine. Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch championed the germ theory of disease that resulted in significant immunological developments in the 1880s and 1890s. In 1894, Behring and Roux announced the effectiveness of antitoxin of diphtheria, using inoculation to save the lives of thousands of children. In 1929 Fleming discovery of penicillin progressed during the era of antibiotics. World War II in the 1940s caused pressure for the pharmaceutical manufacturers who rapidly adapted a lot of production methods of penicillin. The pharmacy which had been a source of medicine to relieve suffering and ailments became a place for preventive drugs and cures for bad diseases (Wutoh). Physicians turned to pharmacists more and more for drug information; the emergence of pharmaceutical care as a directive in pharmacy; the role of managed care in directing health care; the pharmacists as a drug expert, and a key player in the health care team and disappearance of the popping community pharmacy (Wutoh).
The Introduction to the chain pharmacy. A chain pharmacy consists of an organization that operates at least 4 or more retail pharmacies open to the public. They are examples of community pharmacies. A chain pharmacy is corporately owned. An independent pharmacy is that is owned privately, and pharmacist, or a group of them operates them. A franchise pharmacy is owned independently. They belong to a chain of community professional pharmacies that dish out medications while also preparing them. A mail order pharmacy is a high quantity and volume pharmacy with an operation that is centralized that enters prescriptions and sends them as electronic mails to the patient (Onuegbu).
Pharmacist’s responsibilities include giving Information, dispensing of medicines, Patient Education and Counseling and Prescribing drugs. The pharmacists aim at providing care that is patient-centered to have a healthier patient. On another note, excellent communication skills will help in teaching patients about drug therapies that are sophisticated, being able to understand information from the patients, assist in coping of sick patients and creation of lasting relationships with the patients. There are barriers to clinical pharmacy practice including the lack of additional training, lack of expertise which turns into a lack of confidence in practice, the cost of adding staffing from both pharmacist and technicians and the lack of incentives to pharmacists. The daily tasks in a chain include; checking or verifying prescriptions, providing superior customer service, interacting with other medical personnel, management of pharmacy and auxiliary staff and daily pharmacy operations. The benefits include; paid holidays, paid vacation days, paid sick days, health insurance: medical, dental, vision, disability insurance, life insurance, pension plans, reimbursement, tuition/course reduction/reimbursement, student loan repayment. Pharmacist professional development increase involvement in changing aspects of pharmacy practice: immunization, CPR training and disease state management. Additionally, obtain advanced certifications/education and involvement in pharmacy associations (Onuegbu).
To become a nuclear pharmacist one needs to be a graduate of an accredited Pharmacy College, an activated license in the practice state; training of 200 hours in instrumentation and radiation physics, protection from radiation; the supervised experience of 500 hours and have attended nuclear pharmacist programs of training (Gebo). Nuclear pharmacist specializes in compounding, procurement, testing of quality control, distribution, dispensing, and radiopharmaceuticals monitoring. Additionally, the nuclear pharmacist offers consultation about issues of safety and health, also the use of drugs that are non-radioactive and care of the patient.
The wide majority of the drugs in nuclear pharmacy should be prepared on a daily, even at times hourly, basis. So a lot of time of the pharmacist’s is directed to the preparation and control testing of the quality of the drugs, preparation of the drugs that are sterile involves changing in ISO. Nuclear drugs are the legend, and the FDA approves them. They may be available straight from its manufacturer or compounded on site. They may be instilled, ingested, inhaled or injected sub-dermally, intravenously, or subcutaneously (Gebo).
A radiopharmaceutical has two objects: a radionuclide and a pharmaceutical which is a tracer. Radiopharmaceuticals go through absorption, metabolism, excretion and distribution similar to another drug. Radiopharmaceuticals have also met requirements of FDA for safety and efficiency. They are normally sub-pharmacologic that is the portion tracer is used in trace quantities and does not show any relationship in dose-response. The emission type that is given off will determine if the radionuclide will be significant in treating a patient or imaging (Gebo).
Medical radiation sources involve radionuclides that occur naturally which is an element with an atomic number of >82 and radionuclides that are artificial such as produced within a generator, nuclear reactor, or cyclotron. These worldwide nuclear reactors are most necessary for nuclear pharmacies. The drugs are dished out in quantities of mill curies. The prescriptions are electronically transmitted. The prescriptions are typed by the pharmacy into the computer and generate the label for the prescription once the drugs are dispensed. Becoming a nuclear pharmacy comes with its risks. However, these pharmacists especially radiation safety dispensers wear rings on their hands. The personnel surveys themselves as they leave the restricted areas while the facility is monitored daily to counter contamination.
Positron emission tomography is a brand new thing of nuclear pharmacy. It can be used for diagnosing of cancer, treatment, and staging. Procedures of nuclear medicine are characterized by safe, non-invasive, cost-effective, and painless tactics to treat disease or image the body. The procedures exude additional information that might be unavailable otherwise, for cases that require surgery, it is costly and helps avoid invasive diagnosis. They mainly look for abnormalities early in the process of the disease before numerous medical issues are identified with other tests. Nuclear medicine varies from other diagnostic or modalities of imaging which are ultrasound, X-ray, MRI and CT-scan since nuclear medicine identifies the disease presence based on changes in biological rather than anatomical ones (Gebo).
Cardiac perfusion studies indicate the level of occlusion of the myocardium or possible cardiac vessels obstruction. A test may be done to determine if the cardiac tissue is infarcted or ischemic. Lung perfusion and ventilation studies consist of two parts: a look into the airways and the examination of the lung perfusion. Skeletal imaging nuclear medicine is way more sensitive than the x-rays for skeleton imaging. Indications include Osteomyelitis, fractures, metastases, pain or trauma, primary bone cancers, metabolic issues, and loosening of the prosthesis. In Brain perfusion imaging, agents of brain perfusion cross the barrier of blood-brain and assist in the evaluation of diseases of the cerebrovascular. Imaging agents that do not cross the barrier are used to confirm tumors or brain death. In tumor imaging which is accomplished through certain pathways. Radiopharmaceuticals depend on the variations in the tumor cells behavior.
Computer-Aided Drug Design involve First, Structure-based methods are responsible for Agouron’s AIDS drug nelfinavir. Secondly, fragment-based involve certain steps. It begins with binding sites that comprise triple pockets for binding; second crystallographic screening that locates fragments that link to a single, couple or triple pockets; a compound of lead is designed through arranging all triple fragments around a central template and growing out of one fragment (Wang, September 22nd, 2016)
There are two philosophies that govern ethics in the world: Deontological involve studies of duties that people have toward each another and Utilitarianism view policies, or actions need to be evaluated morally in accordance with the extent to which they promote well-being and happiness. Clinical principles of bioethics are beneficial without maleficence, with autonomy, justice, and veracity. Ethics is the study of nature generally of morals which are habits or rules of conduct. Ethics originates from Greek ‘Ethos’ or moral customs while moral is from the Latin ‘MOs’ or custom. On the other hand, philosophy is a moral critical reflection of ethic’s place in philosophy. Overcoming ignorance in ethics requires the use of conflict in ethics to your rescue. Ethics is drawn in culture (Lombardo).
The first revolution in ethics happened with the rise of kingdoms approximately 7,500 years ago. The people needed to learn, for the first time in history on how to meet strangers regularly without trying to kill them. The second revolution in ethics suggests that we have bonds ethically to every other human being as much as we have them to ourselves. Indeed, enjoins us to love one another as we love ourselves; leap from selfishness to selflessness. The third revolution in ethics springs directly from resistance to colonialism, racism, and other forms of oppression that modern ethical systems banned in practice not necessarily in theory. The fourth revolution in ethics came with new philosophies called deep ecology, egocentrism and ecofeminism (Lombardo). Based on Howard University’s Philosophy by Alain Locke’s which illustrates the insight that is revolutionary that humans must be together because of their variations rather than their similarities.
The idea of ethical relativity in solving reality issues uses controversy to create new solutions to old problems. The basic principles involved are autonomy, no maleficence, beneficence, justice. Ethical dilemmas exist in telling the truth if deception is justified, in confidentiality if failure to protect the privacy of the patient is justified and the differences between obligations for confidentiality and privacy. Pharmacists code of ethics has respect for the relationship between pharmacist and patient; advocate for good for every patient in a compassionate, confidential and caring manner; respect for the dignity and autonomy of patient; act with integrity and honesty in professional partnerships; maintenance of competence; respect the abilities and values of colleagues and other health care professionals; service to individual, community, and society needs; and seek justice in the dishing out of health resources (Lombardo).
Patient and pharmacists relationships are defined by specific models. HCP is a technical expert providing facts and information. They include the paternalistic model. The HCP decides the best action course to be followed. Patient autonomy relegated to patient assent. Informative Model, HCP provides the facts while offering little overall guidance; Interpretive Model, HCP limits expression of own values; elucidates patient’s preferences in order to match these with medical actions to accommodate them and Deliberative Model, HCP actions are similar to a trainer with the aim of determining the most relevant values related to health in the clinical setting and then being in a correlation with the options available (Lombardo).
The term polypharmacy refers to the use of more than one medication by a patient. Patients who are at greater risk of polypharmacy impacts include psychiatric patients, elderly, patients having five or more drugs at the same time, patients hospitalized recently, those with many pharmacies and physicians, low level of education, and those a vision that is impaired. Potentially inappropriate medications for older persons include a high potential for severe ADEs which are amitriptyline and chlorpropamide, and a high potential for less severe ADEs which are, indomethacin, diphenhydramine, antihistamines and muscle relaxants. The demographics suggest a prevalence of inappropriate use of medications and prevalence of risk factors for drug-related problems. Declining physiologic function of the eyes and ears, respiratory system, gastrointestinal system, genitourinary system, musculoskeletal system and psychiatric conditions. The FDA issued an advisory that stated that antipsychotic medications such as and risperidone that has the potential to heighten mortality among patients who are elderly (Lombardo).
Mortality rates among elderly patients were looked at in a study which looked at comparisons of those who started using either conventional drugs or antipsychotic agents. The higher rate of death was associated with the conventional agents. Therefore, old patients should not have a switch from atypical to conventional agents to decrease the death risk. If confirmation happens, the results suggest that conventional medications are likely at least for the atypical agents to incline the death risk among elderly people and that conventional drugs should not replace atypical agents.
Geriatric Pharmacokinetics absorption is through GI absorptive cells, GI motility, gastric acid secretion and active transport. Distribution via albumin, binding to red blood cells, adipose tissue, and cardiac output. Biotransformation via liver mass, hepatic blood flow, Liver function and both phase I and II metabolism. Elimination via parent compound for instance antimicrobials, digoxin, H2-antagonists, another is Metabolites (Lombardo).
Pharmaceutical academia attracts pharmacists who are intellectually inclined. Many academics’ activities extend beyond the lab and classroom, for they often work with other healthcare professionals in a consultative capacity in patient management, research or outside professional organizations (Pittman). Ambulatory care pharmacists fulfill the medication and information needs of outpatients and advise healthcare professionals working with outpatients. Some are licensed and located in hospitals, while others operate under certain hospital acts. They work primarily in hospitals and clinics. These pharmacists have more direct patient contact than many pharmacists in inpatient setting. Some facilities operate full-service outpatient pharmacies, while others have no pharmacies but employ ambulatory care specialists as advisors to the medical staff (Pittman).
MTM is Evolving they manage patient with chronic medical problems that pharmacists reviews, counsels, and intervene. They impact on improving medical conditions and are reimbursable for the services rendered by pharmacists. Administration, documentation or publishing, legislative activities, public relations or marketing, professional relations or affairs, scientific affairs, accreditation, continuing education, fundraising, research and many other areas related to the profession. Consultant pharmacists are individuals who have developed areas of expertise and are hired, often on a contractual basis, by clients who need assistance in these areas.
Pharmacists of drug information work in poison control and drug information to provide pharmaceutical products’ information to professionals, the industry, and to consumers. They work in pharmaceutical companies, hospitals, and other areas such as educational institutions and centers for control of poison. Pharmacists working in drug information centers answer healthcare professionals’ inquiries about characteristics and contraindications of new and existing drugs; provide updates on new therapies and applications; Offer information about aspects of medication therapy including side effects, adverse drug reactions, pricing and substitutions; and help monitor drug usage for cost-effectiveness (Pittman).
Geriatric care pharmacy requires a knowledge and special sensitivity to of the mature population. They work with drug interactions, drug dosage requirements, formulary decisions and drug therapy review that differ from those used with other population sections. Additionally, they are often restricted to a narrower base of medications available with which to treat patients because of the greater interactive effects of drugs on seniors. Hospital pharmacy administrators are responsible for ensuring that quality pharmaceutical services are provided by accreditation and professional standards and at the lowest possible cost. They not only dispense drugs but also make purchasing decisions, monitor drug therapy, prepare IV admixtures, oversee drug administration and interact with all facets of the healthcare chain, and other health professionals (Pittman).
Infectious diseases pharmacists have become key members in response to the threat of AIDS. Oncology pharmacists provide pharmaceutical products and care to cancer patients and, as such, are key members of the cancer therapy. They may help design specific drug therapy protocols for the systemic treatment of cancer. They are involved in the drug treatment of medical conditions resulting from cancer; palliative treatment and pain control; the prevention, minimization or treatment of side effects of drugs; and the appropriate modification in treatment. Pharmacists involved in pediatric care concentrate on the difficulties of children drug substances. Their work requires knowledge of pharmacology, therapeutics, and pharmacokinetics as these relate to pediatric and neonatal illnesses. Psychiatric Care Pharmacists have expertise in drugs that treat psychiatric illnesses. They have both a patient-oriented and distribution role and contribute approximately 50% of their time in each area (Pittman).
A credential indicates that a person holds the particular qualifications necessary to practice in the particular career and is, therefore, worth to trust. The documented evidence includes diploma, earned an academic degree, license, certificates, and certifications. Accreditation institutions provide recognition publicly to a program involved in credentialing that seems to required standards. The credentials enable one prepare for a particular practice or to indulge in practice or in other cases upgrade career skills and knowledge. Accreditation is offered by National Commission for Certifying Agencies (NCCA) (Stephens, October 27, 2016)
Board of Pharmacy Specialties (BPS) purpose include: recognizing specialty practice areas and evaluation of the skills and communicate the relevance of specialization. The Board’s mission is the improvement in the patients care through the promotion of the recognition and value of specialized training of skills, and the knowledge of pharmacy and pharmacist’s certification specialty board. The BPS credentials need to be maintained as it needs re-certification every other seven years. The requirements are met by a query recertification examination or proceeding with learning provided by an approved professional programs (Stephens, October 27, 2016).
Pharmacy Benefit Managers (PBMs) began in 1970’s to help decide on claims, manually. In history, there exist an administrator who is third-party of programs in the prescription drug. PBMs are responsible primarily for maintaining and developing the formulary, negotiating discounts with manufacturers of drugs, contracting with pharmacies, and paying and processing drug prescription claims. The top three major PBMs are Express Scripts Inc., CVS Caremark and United Health Group (Sohn, November 15, 2016).
PBM current events include pending FTC approval for two additional significant PBM competitors which are on the horizon. They are Anthem the Blue Cross-Blue Shield brand which has acquired Cigna while Aetna acquired Humana. PBM is on the look-out for drugs with recent price hikes; tracking; guarding; preventing; presidential election outcome; uncertainty on the future of healthcare reform act; and uncertainty on legislature oversight of drug price hikes. There are actual jobs within a PBM for pharmacists they include: therapeutic resource center pharmacist; clinical account executive; utilization management pharmacist; coverage review determination also known as reviews and appeals and clinical operations. (Sohn, November 15, 2016).
Professional pharmacy associations and organizations have numerous functions. Their function and purpose involve satisfying the interests of the members, to publish papers of position and convince governments, other organizations and privately owned business. They offer great benefits and services including Information dissemination, maintenance of practitioner’s competency, career planning assistance, financial Benefits and participation in governance. Organizations with Pharmacists as Members include American Pharmaceutical Association (APhA); American Society of Health-Systems Pharmacist (ASHP); National Pharmaceutical Association (NPhA); and National Council on Patient Information and Education (NCPIE) (Mc Koy-Beach).
The Independent Pharmacist is a single multi-store owner. Independent pharmacies core values involve partnership in healthcare and personal outreach. Their patient’s focus is too provide both service and product. Community pharmacists who are independent usually are very accessible and offer trustworthy health care sources for numerous numbers of patients across the communities. As experts in the medication field, they offer advice on how to treat certain concerns that are related to health and lead to the overall decline of costs by assisting in ensuring that the patients have their medications and progressively refer them to options of generic treatment if they are there. They continue to define the future of pharmacy (Crandon-Enyi, November 17, 2015).
They face the challenge of staying afloat by running a successful business. Failure may result from failure to plan properly before the start, to monitor financial position, to manage cash flow, to manage to grow, to borrow properly and also the failure to pay taxes. Other challenges are mergers e.g. Walgreens, internet distribution problems, counterfeit drugs, marketing & staffing, preferred network access from any willing provider and provider status for pharmacists. They, however have numerous opportunities in markets with niches in home health care, compounding, specialty drugs and diabetes care. There are more than 60,000 pharmacists in independent pharmacies in the United States (Crandon-Enyi, November 17, 2015).
Evolution of drug delivery systems consists of a review of the first generation to the fifth generation drug delivery systems a drug is administered rarely to man as a pure chemical compound. Instead, it is given as a preparation containing the drug called a dosage. Almost anything done to the dosage form may alter the availability of the drug delivered to the desired place in the human body. The first generation drug delivery systems have consistency and uniformity. They appeared towards the end of 19th century. The second generation improved on 1st generation dosage forms could not achieve the main aims of an efficient drug delivery system. The delivery to the site of action of the minimum amount of drug necessary to produce the desired therapeutic response and the delivery at an optimal rate which will maximize the beneficial response and minimize the unwanted side effects. In the systems that have a release that is repetitive, delayed, and dosing is intermittent meaning that a drug occurs from more than one release and immediate units instilled into a form of single dosage (Akala).
The third generation involved the accurate control of the rate at which a certain drug dosage is released from a system of delivery and to permit a precise, predictable and reproducible drug therapy, release devices rate-controlled are designed to provide release of drug that is dependent on the device properties and the drug physicochemical properties and not dependent on the environmental factors such as pH and enzymes presence. The fourth generation modulated targetable and regulated self-drug delivery systems. The fourth had gene therapy, intended for the treatment of the disease cause rather than its symptoms, is essentially the cells redesign by introducing therapeutic genes into cells that are genetically disabled to place therapeutic agents made by the gene. Polymers are used as delivery systems that are not viral (Akala).
Howard University Hospital pharmacy history is similar to that of other healthcare professions and are closely relates to the American history. Its objectives are to promote the appropriate and correct use of medicinal devices and products; to increase the therapeutic impact of medications, by using the greater effective treatment for each particular kind of patient; to manage effectively an organized pharmaceutical service; participate and conduct in pharmaceutical and clinical research; and participate and conduct in educational programs for healthcare professionals (Hanson, November 3, 2016).
The food and drug administration promote and protect the public health. They assure the safety, efficacy, and security of veterinary and human drugs, medical devices, biological products, the country’s food supply, cosmetics, and radiation emitting products. Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), the biggest of FDAs centers. It ensures that drugs are effective and safe before they are marketed and approved for use by the public. It also regulates medications given over prescription and also via the counter (Williams).
Finally, the role of medical affairs has changed to deal with existing gaps. Their roles include the key appreciation for the medicine advancement. They uphold the significance in the timely communication of the results to relevant stakeholders. They contribute important education and developments to the medical community and ultimately improve patient care. Medical communications respond to inquiries of products, develop dossier of products, provide medical review of materials for promotion and are responsible for publication tactics and execution of plans (Busse). Field medical officer’s directly deals in fairly equitable, face-to-face scientific researchers exchange, payers and, clinicians with the ultimate objective of improving the care of patients. They provide feedback from external sources to cross-functional internal partners.

Works Cited
Anthony K. Wutoh. “The Role of Pharmacy in Drug Evolution.” Howard University. Lecture
Chan Sohn. “PBMs in US Healthcare system: Overview on PBMs and Pharmacist roles within the field.” Howard Univ. School of Pharmacy. November 15, 2016. Lecture.
Clive Hanson, MS., and Nana Addo. “Introduction to Hospital PharmacyHoward University: School of Pharmacy.” November 3, 2016. Lecture
Emmanuel O. Akala. “Evolution of Drug Delivery Systems (Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms).” College of Pharmacy, Howard University. Lecture
Fred Lombardo. “Ethics-US Health Care.” Howard University. Lecture
Fred Lombardo. “Pharmacogeriatrics Polypharmacy in the Elderly.” Howard University. Lecture
Greg D. Busse. “Pharmaceutical Industry and Pharmacy Profession: A Focus on Medical Affairs.” Howard University: College of Pharmacy. Lecture
Jerome R. Pittman. “Practice Area – Specialized.” Howard Univ. School of Pharmacy. Lecture.
Kate Stephens. “Student/Resident Guide to Specialty Board Certification.” Howard Univ. School of Pharmacy. October 27, 2016. Lecture
Leana Gebo. “Nuclear Pharmacy.” Howard Univ. School of Pharmacy. Lecture
LT Phillip A. Williams. “Pharmacy Career Path – Regulatory.” Howard University College of Pharmacy. Lecture
Merlyn Crandon-Enyi. “Opportunities and Challenges of the Independent Pharmacist.” Howard Univ. School of Pharmacy. November 17, 2015. Lecture.
Rosemary Onuegbu. “Chain Pharmacy.” Howard Univ. School of Pharmacy. Lecture
X. Simon Wang. “Introduction to Pharmacy: Computer-Aided Drug Design.” College of Pharmacy, Howard University. September 22nd, 2016. Lecture.
Yolanda McKoy-Beach. “Professional Pharmacy Associations and Organizations.” Howard Univ. School of Pharmacy. Lecture.