Male and Female Reproductive strategies among primates, and how do they compare to human?

Male and female reproductive strategies in primates and their comparison to humans
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Male and Female Reproductive strategies among primates and their comparison to humans
Introduction
The male and female primates have different reproductive strategies. The females approaches are similar in all the species while those of males differ according to the species that they belong (Bercovith, 1991). Female primates invest in their offspring in terms of time and energy. They provide food for the infant even if it means competing with other females until the infant can look after itself. At this point, the female majors on getting another offspring. However, the number of offspring that she will get is limited by the gestation and lactating periods (Winkler, 1988). Males do not major in taking care of the infant but may protect it from predators to some extent. The number of babies they can have is unlimited since they can mate with as many females as they want.
Food determines the reproductive success of females since it affects its birth rate and infant survival (Masters, 1983). The effort invested in mating determines the reproductive success of male primates. Human female reproductive success is as well dependent on nutrition since it determines the success of the gestation period and the survival of the infant. Women as well invest more in their offspring just like primates while men perform this responsibility to a lower extent (Abbott, 1987)The choice of mate and the number of mating in humans is shaped by learned characteristics and the complexity of their thought.

This paper explains the different reproductive strategies in primates and compares them to humans (Strier, 1996).
Materials and Methods
The literature reviews used for this research work include journals such as Strier, K. (1996). Male reproductive strategies in new world primates. Human Nature, 7(2), 105-123. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02692107, Abbott, D. (1987). Behaviourally mediated suppression of reproduction in female primates. Journal Of Zoology, 213(3), 455-470. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1987.tb03720.x among others included in the reference list. Methods used in data collection include direct observation of feeding and mating behaviors of both male and female baboons in the park. Observation helped in obtaining data on humans by examining lactating mothers, women with grown children and how their relation with their fathers. Site study was another method of data collection and the site focused on was Amboseli National Park in Kenya. The main aim of the site study was to get information on the effect of the 1990 drought incident and how it has impacted on the reproduction strategies of the baboons in the park.
Results
From observation, it was noted that lactating baboons traveled long distances carrying their infants in search of food and water. Female baboons with mature infants rarely walked with their babies. Such baboons mated with the nearest males. The same male baboon mated with other females averagely two in a day. A female baboon concentrated less on its adult offspring and more on its lactating. The male Baboons rarely spent time with its offsprings. The female baboons fought over food and shelter until one won, and the other surrendered. Observations on women showed that ninety percent of those women who had to give birth stayed home to care, feed and watch over their babies. Nine out of ten of the women that had grown children left them at home and went to work and three-quarters of the children fed themselves. Fathers rarely spent time with their children, and once in a while, they would carry their babies in the evening after work.
Amboseli National Park in Kenya is 39206 hectares spreading across the Kenya –Tanzania Border. This park was hit by severe drought in 1996 that had adverse effects on both the animals and their habitat. The adverse climate change reduced food supply by sixty percent. The female birth rates since the drought had declined. The survival rates of infants had also reduced.
Discussion
Among primates and other species, female reproductive strategies are consistent. Whenever it is necessary, a female orangutan can get a male mate and therefore the male that is nearest at such a time fathers the females offspring. Among the primates, females are not faced with much pressure in selecting or attracting mates. Females, specifically mammals put a lot of investment in the offspring by bearing the pregnancy. They are responsible for supporting the offspring all the way from gestation to nursing. They, therefore, invest a lot of their time, effort, and energy in their offspring (Abbott, 1987).
Such investments require the female to feed more than normal and to do so she has to travel for miles to get food. Travelling has its shortcomings. The female is exposed to praetors and hunger, yet she is carrying along a lactating infant.
On the other hand, the reproductive strategies of the males differ according to the species. Their responsibilities are less cumbersome than those of females when associated with the offspring. They protect the females when they are looking for food and water as well as the infant from predators. Success at mating is not a big deal in females (Anderson, 1986).
The number of offspring that the female can have is limited while that of males is unlimited. The difference is brought about by prolonged pregnancy and lactation periods. Because the number of siblings is limited, the reproductive success of females is significantly reduced by the death of a single offspring. This is the opposite for the males who have the ability to reproduce hundreds of offspring in their life span. When a male loses one offspring, their reproductive success is not so much altered (Abbott, 1987).
Natural selection in primates favors traits among the males which in turn makes them mate more. It is not the primary responsibility of the male primates to invest their time and energy on their offspring. The number of babies that a male primate has depends on the number of occasions it mates. When a male primate takes the initiative to spend more time and energy on mating, its reproductive success is increased so many times as it would in investing in its offspring (Anderson, 1986).
Majorly, female reproductive success is reliant on the availability of enough food. This is because both the female and the infant require food for survival. The female as well needs food so as to get pregnant since nourishment helps in improving fertility. The success of the gestation period as well solely relies on the females’ food. The fetus can only develop and be born healthy if the mother was feeding well and in turn nourishing it. The safety, care and feeding of the infant are up to the female and therefore, the female has to be fed well to perform such responsibilities (Bercovitch, 1991).
According to the data from Amboseli National Park, it is evident that food is a vital component for reproduction and population growth. After the drought, the food supplies decreased, female birth rates reduced and the survival rates of infants also declined. The female baboons in the park lacked enough food hence the chances of having a successful gestation process was reduced leading to reduced birth rates. Infants as well require feeding or otherwise the mother has to be well fed so as to nurse the baby. Lack of enough food only means poor nourishment for the infant hence infant mortality rate increases (Bercovitch, 1991).
Another study is of primate fed by human beings. The population of such primates increases rapidly over a given period. This is because; proper feeding is directly proportional to reproduction success. The females, if well fed, will mature faster have a longer life span and reproduce more offspring in an in a shorter duration (Berard, Nürnberg, Epplen, & Schmidtke, 1993).
A stiff competition exists between females of the same species in acquiring resources. Natural selection favors the female trait of maximizing access to food. Two females of the same species will compete for a similar resource whether it is food, water or shelter. The dominant female in primates has a higher reproductive success than the submissive one. By dominant, we refer to the female that that consistently competes for a similar resource with another female and wins over and over again. On the other hand, the submissive primate competes for resources but loses always. The submissive primates incur certain costs including losing energy or being injured. Sometimes females submit to their rivals so as to avoid the costs. The most favored species are the ones that dominate or submit whenever they are losing so as to avoid injury or energy wastage (Ohsawa, Inoue, & Takenaka, 1993).
Transitive dominance hierarchies exist among primates. These hierarchies are associated with access to food whereby the dominant organism gets food that is preferred. Dominance relates to reproductive success directly. Transitive dominance hierarchy refers to a scenario whereby if primate A defeats primate B and B defeats C, then A will defeat C. Primates have the most stable and well defined transitive dominance hierarchy (Fedigan, 1983). As stated, the dominance of a primate has a direct effect on its reproductive success. This reproductive success is measured by studying the intervals between births, the age of offspring born in a given year and the rate of which those infants survive. Younger age, short interval between births of babies, a high number of infants born within a year and a high rate of infant survival, is a clear indication of the reproductive success (Berard, Nürnberg, Epplen, & Schmidtke, 1993).
An optimum exists between the amount of time invested on an offspring by a female and the number of offsprings to have within her lifetime. Primates do not spend all their time and effort on a single offspring and neglect giving birth to more. They regulate on maximizing the number of offspring as well as maximizing their investment on offsprings. The female takes good care of an infant when it is born until it matures. Upon maturity, she becomes reluctant in lactating the infant or moving around with it because it has grown and therefore can take care of itself. Natural selection favors Those infants that go to the extreme of winning their mother’s attention (Bercovitch, 1997).
The reproductive strategies in primates are to some extent similar to those of humans. Women take good care of their babies when they give birth. They ensure the baby is well fed and attended to always. They invest all their energy and time on the infant. As the baby matures, this investment keeps on reducing until at a certain age where she seeks to get another child with certainty that the other can survive without her attention. Humans, therefore, regulate on their investment in the offspring and giving birth (Benagiano, 2002).
Just like in primates, women invest more on the offspring as compared to men. Women deny themselves luxuries to ensure their babies are well fed, clothed and sheltered. They spent most of their time with the infant hence the reason why they are granted maternity leaves. Males try to provide for the baby though they do not take it as a primary responsibility. More so, the time they spent with their children is very limited (Berard, Nürnberg, Epplen, & Schmidtke, 1993).
In humans, choosing a mate slightly differs with the case of primates depending on the learned traits and complexities of the human mind. Learned behavior and memory complexities shape the inherent tendencies. Women, therefore, are picky about their male partners. The possible number of offspring a woman can have is limited by the gestation and lactating period. Men can have as many offspring as they want to depend on how often they mate, but morals restrict the number (Masters, 1983).
Conclusion
In conclusion, the female reproductive strategies are the same across the species while that of males differs. The female primates invest more on the offspring than the male primates. Due to this responsibility, the females require enough food so as to have successful gestation periods and increase the chances of the infant surviving. The dominant female in competing for resources has a higher reproductive success as compared with the submissive. They as well regulate on the duration of taking care of the offspring and the giving birth of more. Female primates are not choosy on the male mates since they mate with the nearest male when in need. The reproductive success of the male primates depends on the time and energy they invest in mating. The reproductive strategies of primates and humans are similar to some extent, and the slight difference is brought about by the complexity of the human mind and morals.
References
Abbott, D. (1987). Behaviourally mediated suppression of reproduction in female primates. Journal Of Zoology, 213(3), 455-470. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1987.tb03720.x
Anderson, C. (1986). Female age: Male preference and reproductive success in primates. International Journal Of Primatology, 7(3), 305-326. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02736394Benagiano, G. (2002). Reproductive strategies for human survival. Reproductive Biomedicine Online, 4, 72-76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1472-6483(12)60016-9Berard, J., Nürnberg, P., Epplen, J., & Schmidtke, J. (1993). Male rank, reproductive behavior, and reproductive success in free-ranging rhesus macaques. Primates, 34(4), 481-489. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02382659Bercovitch, F. (1991). Mate selection, consortship formation, and reproductive tactics in adult female savanna baboons. Primates, 32(4), 437-452. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02381935Bercovitch, F. (1991). Social stratification, social strategies, and reproductive success in primates. Ethology And Sociobiology, 12(4), 315-333. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0162-3095(91)90023-jBercovitch, F. (1997). Reproductive strategies of rhesus macaques. Primates, 38(3), 247-263. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02381613Fedigan, L. (1983). Dominance and reproductive success in primates. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol., 26(S1), 91-129. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330260506Masters, R. (1983). Explaining “male chauvinism” and “feminism”: Cultural differences in male and female reproductive strategies. Journal Of Women, Politics & Policy, 3(2), 165-210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1554477x.1983.9970373Ohsawa, H., Inoue, M., & Takenaka, O. (1993). Mating strategy and reproductive success of male patas monkeys (Erythrocebus patas). Primates, 34(4), 533-544. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02382664Strier, K. (1996). Male reproductive strategies in new world primates. Human Nature, 7(2), 105-123. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02692107.
Winkler, P. (1988). Troop history, female reproductive strategies and timing of male change in Hanuman langurs,Presbytis entellus. Human Evolution, 3(4), 227-237. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02435855