Adoption of e-Govenment in Bahrain

Factors Impacting the Adoption of e-Government Services in Developing: A Case Study of Bahrain Government
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Abstract
The age of technology has seen the gap between developing and developed countries increase. The gap is caused by the implementation trends between the two nations and the easy access to innovations. E-Government service is a technology that was invented to enhance service delivery among government agencies. In Bahrain, the implementation of e-Services has not been effective due to the low-level of adoption among citizens. Many governments have realized that this is a problem for not only e-Service adoption but also the implementation of other new technologies. It is difficult to understand why citizens have this behavior and attitude towards e-Services in Bahrain. Therefore, this research aims to investigate the factors that impact the adoption of e-Government services in Bahrain. The study uses the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) model to evaluate how the concepts of culture and trust influence citizens’ attitude towards e-Services in Bahrain. The evaluation focuses on four constructs: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitation conditions. These four constructs define culture and trust.
Key Words: UTAUT, e-Services, Bahrain citizens
Factors Impacting the Adoption of e-Government Services in Developing: A Case Study of Bahrain Government
Chapter One: Introduction
Background
In March 2001, 122 nations convened at the Third Global Forum on Reinventing Government.

The theme of the meeting was “Fostering Development through e-Government.” The representatives of each country shared ideas, information, and best practices linked to e-government (Basu, 2004, p.111). Since then, the United Nations has focused on assessing the effectiveness of e-government adoption in its member states. The first benchmarking was conducted by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) in 2016, analyzing the progress each member nations have made and the approaches they have employed to ensure e-government adoption is a success. In 2016, UNDESA carried out a survey, this time to analyze the achievements that each member states had made in their adoption of e-government services (United Nations, 2016, p.108). The primary aim of the research was to promote effective adoption of e-Government to improve the lives of people and support development, particularly in developing nations.
Essentially, e-government services are meant to enable access and improve the quality of services offered by the government, support transparency, participation, and accountability, enhance coordination within government, and contribute to social equity (Basu, 2004, p.112). As a significant step towards development, countries have attempted to adopt e-government services for their citizens. The Bahrain government is no exception. They are conscious of the necessity to improve the government services’ efficiencyusing new technologies. As a method to achieve vision 2030, the Bahrain government has initiated the e-Government Agency service program formerlyinitiated by H.E. Shaikh Muhammed bin Mubarak al-Khalifa on 23rd March 2007 (Bahrain e-Government Authority, 2016). However, its full implementation has not been realized, and this is down to several factors that impact its adoption as part of the government’s strategy to deliver services to its citizens. The two significant factors are culture and trust. Therefore, with anemphasis on Bahrain government, this case study tries to understand how culture and trust impact the acceptance of e-government programs in developing nations within the structure of the UTUAT model (Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology). The UTAUT model outlines four constructs that explain culture: Effort Expectancy, EE, performance expectancy, PE, Social Influence, and Facilitation Conditions. The study also compares Bahrain government’s approach with that of Luxemburg and Estonia to understand the concept of implementing ICT programs in developing countries for the development and improvement of citizens’ lives.
The Concept of Culture and Trust
Culture
The concept of culture is not easy to define. It does not have a general or specific definition. The only close definition is given by Hofstede (1993). He states that culture is “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members in one human group from another” (p.21). Culture has been a major factor in the adoption of e-Services in different countries. However, the study of e-Services adoption in Arab countries relies on different cultural dimensions. Bahrain, in particular, is considered one of the most diverse and complex cultural and social systems in the world, which makes a study of the cultural influence on e-services adoption an important aspect of this paper (Meftah, Gharleghi, & Samadi, 2015, p.141). Based on Hofstede’s definition, different cultural dimensions explain Bahrain citizens’ cultural beliefs that influence their acceptance of e-Government services. They include performance expectancy (PE) and social influence.
Ideally, a study of the social influence and performance expectancy will define how culture influences Bahrain citizens’ attitude towards e-Government services. According to AIAwadhi and Morris (2009, p.586), performance expectancy is the degree to which citizens believe that using e-Government services will improve their lives and performances. They assess the effectiveness or relevance of the government services based on their benefits such as time, effort and money, how they improve or enhance the quality of services provided by the government, how it provides people with equal opportunities and whether it facilitates interaction or communication between government agencies and the people. In other words, performance expectancy is a cultural dimension that determines people’s beliefs (AIAwadhi and Morris, 2009, p.586). Similarly, social influence describes people’s belief and perception of new government services. They ask themselves whether the services to be rendered important and whether they should accept it. Because the two cultural dimensions are based on people’s perception and beliefs about new services, they demonstrate how culture influences people’s attitude towards e-Government services. Therefore, a study of the two cultural dimensions will explain how culture influences the adoption of e-Services.
Trust
Trust is what defines the relationship between the government and citizens (Sharma, Bao & Wang Qian, 2012, p.71). In service delivery by any government, it is important to build trust between government agencies and citizens to allow for smooth and easy implementation. Four major factors determine whether citizens will trust in the service delivered by the government: whether the services are ethical, whether they are legal, whether they are trustworthy and whether they can safeguard their confidentiality (Sharma, Bao & Wang Qian, 2012, p.77). However, trust is defined in two main dimensions, which will form the basis of assessment for this research- effort expectancy and facilitation conditions. These dimensions define the concept of trust because they explain citizens’ perception and beliefs in the government’s services.
Essentially, Venkatesh et al. (2003, p.434) explain effort expectancy as the degree of ease in the implementation of e-Services. He states that trust is built between citizens and government agencies when the service to be implemented easy to use, not complex and is legally and ethically protected. The construct is vital in measuring the degree of trust in government institutions and how this trust helps in the easy implementation of e-Government services. Also, facilitating conditions defines the citizens’ beliefs about the new invention, and how their belief that the government is working in their interest. The dimension measures the degree to which the citizens believe that the government is implementing services meant to support them and improve their lives. As constructs that define trust, this study will focus on effort expectancy and facilitation conditions to demonstrate how trust influences the adoption of e-Services in Bahrain. The two constructs will define the relationship between citizens and government agencies.
Research Problem
Many governments all over the world are now using technology to improve their services. The main aim is to make it possible to have access to government services and information. Traditionally, the public would go to agencies formed by the government to request services. With technology changing society today, it has become essential for nations to implement strategies that will help them compete in the global market while improving the well-being of the citizens. Ideally, the difference between developingcountriesand developed nations is the manner in which they embrace new technological advancements. For example, nations such as the UK and the U.S. have been known to use ICT to influence their businesses and citizens. UNDESA has been vigilant in making sure developing countries adopt these styles of governance- surveying how UN member countries take e-government services is an excellent example of their commitment to improving government services and closing the gap that exists between developed and developing nations regarding development and service delivery (Meftah, Gharleghi & Samadi, 2015, p.144). Hence, e-government has offered a platform for governments to transform their countries.
However, Bahrain government is faced with the challenge of low-level of adoption of e-government services by citizens because of the cultural differences and lack of trust in government agencies (Meftah, Gharleghi & Samadi, 2015, p.141). Its success relies heavily on the cooperation and commitment of citizens to adopt the innovation. Unfortunately, Bahrain, together with other developing nations, still prefer to use conventional means to communicate with the government (Meftah, Gharleghi & Samadi, 2015, p.142). For instance, most members of the public in these countries prefer in-person visit and phone calls to the utilization of the internet to communicate with agencies from the government. The low adoption shows rejection and economical usage of initiatives leading to government failure. This unresponsiveness on the public’s part is down to the unawareness of the benefits that come with using e-government programs. The initial step in ensuring consciousness among citizens is by understanding the factors impacting the acceptance of e-government programs in Bahrain by questioning the members of the public together with government agencies. Their insight will be valuable in analyzing why the adoption of the strategy has been unsuccessful, the cultural issues involved with the unresponsiveness of the public, trust between the government and citizens, and what is needed to motivate the audience to use e-government programs to communicate and hold the government accountable. A comparison with Estonia and Luxemburg’s approach also helps in establishing a balance in its implementation.
Research Significance
ICT has transformed the development technology to Bahrain. It affects virtually all agencies of government. E-government- in particular, has established an effective strategy for improving and increasing efficiency and productivity within the government by enabling citizen’s centric services. However, the low-level adoption of the innovation by the public resulting from a lack of trust in different agencies government and Bahrainians cultural perspective has stifled its success in Bahrain. The research tries to understand how two significant factors impact its approval in a bid to explain the low-level implementation. Therefore, the conclusions made by this study will benefit government agencies and citizens of Bahrain, as well as researchers. Firstly, government organizations could apply the findings drawn from this case study’s analysis to enhance e-government services acceptance and reduce on expenses and costs that goes in creating awareness. Also, they could use the findings to develop their performance and encourage people to accept and implement e-government programs through decision-making and motivational ways to assistpeople in implementing the strategy. Secondly, the responses of the public may reveal the reasons why people fear utilizing e-government programs and the misconceptions surrounding its implementation. The responses from government agencies may be used to create awareness among members of the public, increase transparency and trust between the public and government organizations. Lastly, the concept and findings of this case study may lay the foundation for further research on the field. It may give other researchers ideas on what to focus on and why the area is significant for study.
Research Aims and Objectives
The primary aim of this case study is to comprehend how trust and culture impact the e-government programsadoption in developing nations within the framework of the UTUAT model. The study also compares Bahrain government’s approach with that of Luxemburg and Estonia (two countries where the adoption of e-Government has been successful)to understand the concept of implementing ICT programs in developing countries for the development and improvement of citizens’ lives. To realize this aim, the study will pursue the following objectives:
To identify why culture and trust between government and the public prevent citizens from implementing e-government services.
To explore the perceptions of government institutions on why there is a failure by the government to motivate citizens to adopt the use of e-government programs.
To explore the perceptions of the citizens on why there is the low-level adoption of e-government.
Research Question
This is a qualitative study, aiming to comprehend the factors impacting the behaviors of end-users towards e-government programs. It explores the subject from the perspective of the public and government organizations. The UTAUT model is used to achieve this objective. Therefore, the research question for this study is:
How does trust and culture impact e-government programs adoption in developing nations within the framework of the UTAUT model?
To answer the research question, the study focused on two sub-questions:
How do the components of culture and trust (performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence and facilitation conditions) influence the acceptance of e-Services in Bahrain?
What role does UTAUT model play in culture and trust’s impact of e-Service adoption in Bahrain?
The Scope of the Study
The study is organized into five chapters. Chapter one introduces the subject by discussing background information. It also explains the implication of the case study, the significance of the issue being studied in its research problem section, the research aims and objectives, and the questions the study intends to answer. Chapter two of the study reviews previous studies that have been conducted to investigate the subject. It focuses on the main principles related to e-government such as its definition, benefits, types, and challenges. Chapter three discusses the research methodology. The chapter focuses on the methods utilized to conduct the research. Because it explores the perspectives of both the public and government organizations and questionnaires are the preferred methods to answer the research questions. Chapter four analyzes the data obtained from the purposes mentioned in chapter three. The analysis involves discussions of the results and recommendation of the best practices to improve or enhance the acceptance of e-government program usage. UTAUT model shall be considered during this process with Culture (CT), and Trust (TR) included as independent constructs. Lastly, chapter five concludes the study by summarizing the findings and comparing them with the results of other studies. It also recommends other bases for future research and why how the study findings will improve productivity and efficiency within Bahrain government.
Chapter Two: Literature Review
Introduction
In the previous section, the background of the use of e-Government in the Kingdom of Bahrain was covered. In this chapter, previous studies are reviewed using a critical approach for the Middle East and developing countries, as Bahrain is part of both. The section discusses the details related to e-Government adoption in Bahrain and other developing countries. Ideally, the advancements of information technology have critically affected the success of service delivery in government agencies. E-Government services have been designed by governments to improve service provisions, accountability, and efficiency. This chapter focuses on the definition of e-Government services and progress in developed nations as well as developing countries, the characteristics that distinguish e-Government services from other services produced by the government, how developed countries have adopted the program and the manner in which they have managed to achieve success in their adoption, a discussion of the concepts of culture and trust. Also, the chapter clarifies the need to adopt e-Government services in developing countries and why it is essential to take the program in these countries based on the cultural dimensions of society. It also clarifies how trust construct is defined and developed by other studies.
The chapter comprises of:
Definition and emergence of e-Government services
Adoption of e-Government services
The concept of culture in the context of e-Government service adoption
The idea of trust in the context of e-Government service adoption
E-Government in developing countries
The Importance of adopting e-Government services in developing countries
Definition and Emergence of e-Government Services
E-Government entails the use of ICTs by government agencies to improve the delivery of services to its citizens (Furuholt & Matotay, 2010, p.133). It mainly covers businesses, government, citizens, technology, and economic viewpoint. The basic principle of this program is that individuals within a country can communicate with their government and access their government services through the set communication channels in the internet and other information technology devices developed by government agencies to relay information to the public (Sharma et al., 2012, p.81). The idea of e-Government was born and established in the age of the internet. It has continued to develop and has reached advanced stages where the government relies on its effectiveness to enhance the service delivery to the citizens. With the advent of this program, government agencies worldwide have realized the essence of making their services more effective, efficient, and accessible to ordinary people. For instance, the interaction between the government and citizens has completely been revolutionized by its development (Affisco &Soliman, 2006, p.17). As a result, citizens in developed countries have become more Internet-adept and begin to have expectations that the government will provide the same standards of services delivered by the private sectors. Therefore, different studies have highlighted how and why the government plans to emulate the private sectors by offering more transparent, accessible, and efficient public services to businesses and citizens (Al Shafi, 2008, p.29).
In describing the concept of e-Government, different researchers interprets it based on technology (using ICT to deliver government services electronically), process (procedures used to transform and transact e-Government services), benefits (what the public achieves by adopting the program), citizen focus (the desires of the citizens to obtain quality and effective services from their government), single point access (the avenue used by the government to deliver services through e-Government programs), and phenomenon (using e-Government as an alternative way used by the government to provide its services to the people). According to Choudrie and Weerrakody (2007, p.33), e-Government programs comprise a broad range of services offered using ICT. These activities include, but not limited to the management, capture, dissemination, sharing, and use of seamless information. When the government uses e-Government programs, they aim to enhance the quality of government programs offered to the public by increasing efficiency, accountability, transparency, and efficiency of governmentprograms. Akman et al., (2005, p.244) also support this notion by contending that e-Government services are the most effective way to improve communication and interaction between the citizens and government. It has played a vital role in the transformation of service delivery by the government from a bureaucratic perspective to personal needs-based approach. Hence, it appears that the government around the world is trying to make fundamental changes to the way its agencies use ICT to interact or achieve maximum communication between the government and citizens. It has provided a convenient and efficient method for business and citizens to communicate with government agencies.
Ideally, the Bahrain government has tried to adopt the use of e-Government services fully. Today, it is an essentialaspect of the processof service delivery and is aimed at improving the way the government provides services to its residents, citizens, businesses, visitors, and government entities. According to eGovernment Portal of 2016, the users of the e-Government services in Bahrain have expressed satisfaction with its effectiveness (Bahrain.bn, 2016). According to their testimony, services delivered electronically have increased, and more than 80% of the businesses and citizens have shown how they are satisfied with the quality of services rendered by the government since the acceptance of e-Governmentprograms. However, despite the positive review of the program, its approval has not been implemented as expected by the government. Many people are still reluctant to perform the service. In an attempt to lure people to adopt the service, the Bahrain government has pledged to have a positive influence on three key stakeholders in the country. The stakeholders include the government, individuals, and businesses. Individuals include citizens, visitors, and residents, businesses include large, medium and small business enterprises together with their employees, and the government consists of government agencies and their employees. Hence, studies demonstrate that the implementation of e-Government by the Bahrain government may impact service delivery positively and how the three stakeholders receive services from their government.
Adoption of e-Government Services
The government of Bahrain has a responsibility to provide quality and efficient services to its citizens. They offer different classes of services such as education, health, tendering, and employment system. However, these services vary based on the needs and preferences of the users. According to Ray et al. (2011, p.117), the main aim of providing e-Government services is to offer quality services to business, employees, citizens, and other government agencies. The study shows that the acceptance of e-Government programs in Bahrain may improve efficiency and effective coordination amongst the three stakeholders as well as project teams by developing an efficient monitoring system. Essentially, the acceptance of e-Government services has become an essential study area for many researchers. It has, however, among the most challenging study areas. Many studies have been carried out to understand the trend of its acceptance by citizens, and each study provides different findings and results. Nonetheless, despite the difference in conclusions and effects, most of the studies agree that there is a low demand for e-Government services and this is the main reason many studies have been carried out to understand why the trend exists in developing nations. Also, due to my experience as a service delivery manager, I have a personal concern about citizen’s behavior towards new technologies. In most cases, it is hard as a government provides to implement a service that people are not familiar with. The acceptance behavior of the public is often low when performing such functions. It is, therefore, important to understand the origin and reasons for such actions.
Basu (2004) carried out an analysis of the acceptance of e-Government services among citizens using the UTAUT. The theory they used had four determinants or predictors of usage intention including effort expectancy, performance expectancy,facilitation conditions, as well as social influence. The findings and conclusions were split into two categories: non-significant and significant factors. For non-significant coefficients, the focus was on the social impact and its effect on the behavioral intention for e-Government services usage. The significant factors were, however, the four determinants including, performance expectations, effort expectancy, internet experience, and facilitation conditions. Another factor that formed the foundation of the research was whether age or gender had an impact on the behavior of citizens towards the adoption of e-Government services. In their findings, the two factors did not influence people’s behavior towards the approval and acceptance of e-Government services.
Alhujran (2009, p.81) also applied another theory to investigate the level and acceptance of e-Government services. The approach used was the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). The author used case studies and surveyed to establish the findings and was based on the external and internal variables of the TAM. The internal variables comprised of perceived ease in its usage, attitude, usefulness, and intention by the citizens to use the system. On the other hand, external variables were trustworthiness, national culture, and perceived national value. In their findings, honesty, trust, and citizens’ awareness of the significance of the e-Government services influenced their acceptance and implementation of the service. If people are aware of the quality of the services provided by the program as well as its perceived usefulness and benefits, there is likely to occur high level of acceptance amongst different stakeholders. The survey also stated that the internal variables such as perceived usefulness and its easy usage positively impact the attitude of citizens towards acceptance of e-Government services. However, public value is the factor with the highest impact on the citizens’ thoughts towards the acceptance of e-Government services. Similarly, Jamali, Samadi, and Marthandan (2014, p.171) also agree with these findings. In their study, they also discovered that the perceived public value significantly influences the attitude of citizens and other stakeholders towards the adoption and implementation of e-Government programs.
Lastly, Akkay et al. (2013, p.1535) conducted a more careful study to investigate the adoption of e-Government services by German citizens. In their findings, issues of privacy, data protection, and security are the main factors that influence people’s attitude towards the adoption of e-Government services. For people to trust and rely on the system, the government must demonstrate that they have taken the necessary measures to protect individual data and guarantee the security of their data. This consequently improves the citizens’ level of reliability and completeness of information. The lowest factors that are considered to have an influence on e-Government implementation are the convenience of the services, the variety of services, and status information. The researchers, thus, noticed that the trust in government among citizens is fundamental in influencing them to adopt or implement the function. The government must find a means to motivate citizens by explaining to them the significance of choosing the service.
Adoption of e-Government Services in Estonia
Estonia is considered the benchmark for e-Services implementation in the world. It has pioneered in converting services rendered to the public into e-solutions for the citizens. Globally, it is known as the most digitized nation because it has effectively implemented the government cloud solution which has in-turn provided and an excellent foundation for public service delivery (Kalvet, 2012, p.143). The government’s vision when implementing e-Services was to integrate the services provided by the government into a shared pool of resources that can be accessed by any member of the public. Many studies have been conducted to assess how Estonia has managed to convert its services into shared resources effectively. In the process, they have tried to differentiate e-Governance from e-Government. While defining the approach taken by Estonia to provide services, Gil-Carcia (2005, p.27) defined e-Services in Estonia as “the use of information and communication technologies to provide public services, to improve managerial effectiveness and to promote democratic values and mechanisms.” In short, Estonia has used technology to improve its services delivery to its people, a trend that is slowly being adopted by other countries.
Estonia is a middle-income country. It is, however, impressive to see how they have effectively converted their public services into a pool of resources that can be easily accessed by all members of the public (Anthes, 2015, p.19). In comparison to countries Eastern and Central Europe, the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) listed the number of countries that had effectively implemented e-Government services by 2004. Estonia was ranked first among Central and Eastern European nations (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2004, p.2). It has continued to lead these countries over the years, which demonstrates their commitment to delivering quality services to their citizens. As a middle-income country, Estonia is the best fit for comparison with Bahrain. They fall within the same economic bracket (Gil-García, 2006, p.76). Therefore, an assessment and investigation of the adoption of e-Government services in Bahrain will benefit from this comparison because Estonia provides a benchmark for e-Services implementation. Bahrain, on the other hand, is still faced with lack of acceptance among citizens, which makes it hard for the country to implement e-Services fully.
Adoption of e-Government Services in Luxembourg
Technology has transformed the way countries provide services. Most countries are now converting from traditional methods to online methods. The aim is to improve services delivered to citizens by making the services available to every member of the public. Luxembourg has not been left behind. It is among the countries that have been committed to moving from traditional ways of service delivery to e-Services. Like Estonia, Luxembourg has a big percentage of people using the internet. In a report compiled by Pederson (2016, p.99), all households in Luxembourg had access to the internet by 2015, and 97% of citizens used the internet at least once a week. This makes it an ideal place to implement e-Services because almost every household has access to the internet and can easily use it to communicate with government agencies. Compared to other nations within the same economic bracket, Luxembourg has a very high online service index value, topped a few countries including Qatar, Lithuania, Mexico, Estonia, and Bahrain (Urbina & Abe, 2017, p.63). However, the challenges faced in the implementation of e-Services are similar in both Luxembourg and Bahrain. In this regard, a comparison between the two countries is important to understand how they both deal with these challenges and what Bahrain can learn from Luxembourg’s method of ensuring they implement e-Services despite non-acceptance among the public.
Adoption of e-Government Services in Qatar
According to Al-Shafi (2009, p.101), there is an adoption gap between Qatar and Bahrain. The first country to commence the adoption of e-Services is the Middle East was Qatar. However, over the years, Bahrain has surpassed Qatar based on the acceptance level among citizens. Bahrain is considered the country with the highest level of acceptance among citizens about the adoption of e-Services. Qatar, on the other hand, is not far behind, but it has been slow in the implementation of e-Services. The major barriers to their implementation have been the complex Arab cultures, which have lowered the level of acceptance among citizens.
However, Qatar offers an ideal country to compare to Bahrain because of the similarities in their challenges. They have tried to eliminate the cultural challenges that they have faced over the years, which offers a lesson to Bahrain (Al-Shafi, 2008, p.28). Despite the gap between Bahrain and Qatar, Qatar remains one of the technologically advanced nations in the Middle East, and also one of the most respected and reputable countries globally. It is important to understand how they have dealt with challenges that have hindered their implementation of e-Services. Therefore, the study will compare the adoption of e-Services in both Bahrain and Qatar.
The concept of culture in the context of e-Government service adoption
There is no precise definition of culture in the context of government services delivery mainly as a result of the complications associated with defining it. According to Hofstede (1993), culture can be characterized as “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members in one human group to another” (p.85). Different studies have underscored the importance of culture and how it is connected to the comprehension of the recognition of e-Government. Alshehri and Drew (2010, p.1053-1059) carried out a study to investigate the challenges faced by the people of Saudi Arabia regarding the acceptance of e-Government services. In their findings, they stated that social barriers are significant challenges. They influence the intention of the citizens to adopt and accept e-Government services. Moreover, cultural differences between citizens of Saudi Arabia were the main social barrier to the adoption and acceptance of the program. Mainly, cultural challenges include language barrier, lack of education, religion, features, experiences, background, and different expectations towards e-Government services. In other words, Alshehri and Drew believe that the main barrier to the acceptance and adoption of the program is cultural compatibility. In most governments, it is hard to resolute culture because of the complexities associated with it. For instance, when e-Government service involves the collaboration between the government and citizens, resolving cultural issues is vital to address their social attitude towards the program.
Al-Sowayegh (2012, p.101) also conducted a qualitative study to investigate the cultural drivers and barriers to the acceptance of e-Government services among Saudi Arabian citizens from the perspective of the government employees. After the author interviewed the participants, he found that different cultural drivers influence the attitude of citizens towards the acceptance of e-Government programs. These drivers include collectivism, nepotism, generation gaps, loyalty, and grouping affects the perspective of the user towards the recognition of e-Government services. Moreover, the author found that two cultural dimensions directly affect the adoption of the program by employees. They are socio-structural practices and cultural values. It is hard to change cultural values because they are rooted and embedded in society. They include national backgrounds such as their beliefs and history and the national culture which is also referred to as cultural infrastructure. Based on his assessment, Al-Sowayegh (2012) states that “The socio-structural practices are elements in the culture that are always changing and are not as embedded in the cultural fabric as the cultural values” (p.137). He found these elements to be technological, political, organizational, resource-based, educational, and legislative factors. Therefore, this study found that cultural difference poses a significant challenge to the acceptance of the e-Government program in developing nations.
Further, Nadi (2012, p.1401) conducted a study on the influence of culture on the acceptance of e-Government services in Saudi Arabia. The author found that several factors influence the approval of the program positively. They include conservation values, perspective on communication, trust, compatibility, and result demonstrability. The exercise of power by the government and the lack of confidence in these agencies has adverse effects on the way people adopt and accept to use e-Government services. In another study by Hofstede (1993), five dimensions of cultural variations were identified. They include uncertainty avoidance, power distance, masculinity versus femininity, collectivism versus individualism, and short-term versus long-term orientation. According to his findings, employees with cultures scoring power distance tend to be diligent and obedient to their supervisors. They will complete tasks assigned to them by their supervisors even if they do not agree with them or have confidence in the task they are asked to finish- this is because they believe that there is an unequal distribution of power and those in authority should be obeyed and respected. In most cases, employees of citizens with this kind of cultural practice or attitude will implement or adopt e-Government services without questioning its effectiveness and efficiency. Also, the study found that people living in countries with low uncertainty avoidance are more likely to take risks and make decisions based on their assessments. These people are, therefore, more likely to implement the program because of their intention and attitude to take risks.
Lastly, Aldraehim et al. (2012, p.655-662) also showed the impact of culture on the use of e-Services in developing countries. In Saudi Arabia, nepotism had a significant effect on society. The study focused on this aspect of learning. They identified it as “the employment of relatives, whether in the same organization or even working or being supervised by their relatives in the same department” (p.656). To clarify their findings, the author defined some cause of nepotism which included educational, economic, sociocultural, and political structures. In the survey results, the authors found that nepotism negatively influences people’s intentions of adopting e-Services. The relationship between intention to use and nepotism is weak. In other words, nepotism is a culture that is practiced in most developing countries. It defines the way governments conduct their businesses. Based on the study by Aldraehim et al. (2012), states that practice nepotism are less likely to see a high level of implementation of e-Services because people have less intention to use the services. Therefore, people’s attitude towards services provided by the government is significantly affected by the different cultural practices including nepotism.
The concept of trust in the context of e-Government service adoption
The citizens and government’s relationship determines or impacts acceptancee-Services. In a study conducted by Nogoev et al. (2011, p.119), recognition is influenced by the level of trust developed in users. For instance, when citizens believe that the mediums used to relay e-Service information are legal, trustworthy and ethical, they are likely to build trust in government agencies. According to Nogoev et al. (2011, p.121), faith is defined as the respect shown by employees or residence towards the government’s ability, security, trustworthiness, and reliability. It involves the main factors that appeal to the emotions of citizens. In other words, for citizens to adopt e-Services, the government must ensure they create an emotional connection with their citizens. They must demonstrate a high level of trustworthiness, reliability and the security and protection of their data. Nogoev et al. (2011, p.120) state that most government agencies face significant problems when the citizens do not have trust or confidence in their services. In this regard, most studies have focused on the impact of faith on their acceptance of e-Services.
Brown and Thompsom (2011, p.330), in their study, also emphasizes the importance of trust in the government and the internet about the adoption or acceptance of e-Government services. The portrayal of trust towards government authorities by citizens determines the success of its approval. In this research, the authors found that faith by the public in the government websites translates to the trust in the government authorities. In essence, for citizens to trust the sites or other mediums used as platforms for e-Government program, the government must ensure that they build a relationship of trust by assuring them of security of their data, the efficiency of the services and how it intends to enhance the quality of services provided. In essence, the authors believe that citizens’ trust in government agencies should act as direct motivating factors in government Websites. The demonstration of faith by citizens towards the capabilities of the government and security of the internet can indicate the level of trust they have towards the government.
In another study, Lopez-Sisniega (2009, p.37) argued that conveying a right image requires the e-Government websites to be professionally designed. The design should be able to appeal to the public, reliable and have a high level of security and availability. The government institutions have to ensure they design websites that are trusted by the public and ensure their data is secure. To increase the trust of the people, they should come up with regulations and policies that protect the handling of personal data, audit processes and ensure the rules are implemented. They should also include sanctions for those who violate these regulations and assure everyone is educated on the way to use their data and what they need to do in case a person invades their privacy. This initiative will help in building a relationship of trust between the government and citizens by demonstrating a high level of transparency and management of e-Service transactions.
Lastly, Alhujran (2009, p.79) also conducted several interviews to investigate factors that influence the building of trust between the government and citizens. He got numerous responses from his participants. Most of the participants agreed that the government needs to increase the trust between them and citizens to influence successful implementation of e-Services (Alhujran, 2009, p.80). They also listed many things the government needs to do to achieve the level of trust they need to implement e-Services. According to the participants, implementing privacy and security issues on the websites and improving the reliability on the government’s side, drafting and ensuring relevant laws and regulation are implemented and enforced increases the trust in government.
Similarly, a study by Zahir and Gharleghi (2015, p.81) found that governments that implement laws to improve the level of security and privacy increase transparency in their governance, which in turn increase the level of trust amongst citizens. In other words, confidence and security are the significant determinants acceptance and adoption of internet services. Because many people use the internet, the government ought to increase the degree of trust among citizens by guaranteeing the security of their data and ensuring sanctions are implemented to deter potential cyber crimes that have become one of the significant security threats in the world. Therefore, trust is a fundamental principle required to motivate citizens to accept or adopt e-Government services.
E-Government in Developing Countries
There is a difference in how developed and developing countries use e-Government services. The reality of using e-Government is that it has been designed over a long period in developing countries that its implementation should be guaranteed. According to United Nations (2014), since e-Government services/program was launched in the year 2000, by now it must have enough capability and experience to meet the requirements as it is in developed countries. Many developing countries recognize the potential importance of e-Government services. However, most of them still struggle with its implementation. According to Schuppan (2009, p.121), the lack of proper implementation may be attributed to the vast technological gap that exists between developed and developing countries. The author states that the distinction between developing and developednations about the acceptance of e-Government programs is that it is used to increase the development rate and improve democracy in society, while in developing countries, the program is used as part of the government’s move to enhance development within their organization. In short, the gap, in both ideology and technology, between the two countries highlights the reasons why there is the low rate of acceptance of e-Government programs in developing nations.
In a study conducted by Aldraehim, et al. (2012, p.660), the projection of the full implementation of e-Government services in developing countries requires an extended period to reach the level of developed countries. This is mainly because of the lack of consciousness among citizens. The governments have not done enough to market the program and make people understand its benefits to society. As a result, people have become skeptical about its implementation because they do not know how it is used and the potential benefits it may bring to them. In Bahrain, a study by Omer (2016, p.77) shows that the low acceptance rate among citizens is mainly due to their culture and lack of trust between the government and citizens. Culturally, the lack of education among citizens has contributed to the lack of adoption or acceptance of e-Government services. Also, diminished trust in the governments’ functions has led to people fearing to adopt the program. To most people, the problems associated with the internet have made it hard for people to trust the websites developed by the government agencies. They prefer traditional forms of communicating with the government because of the fear of privacy invasion and loss of personal data. In other words, the government is at fault for failing to gain the trust of the public. They understand why people refuse to implement e-Government services and should take measures to ensure that they learn the confidence and trust of the people. One of the ways to achieve this is by enacting laws and regulations that protect the personal data of citizens and impose sanctions on people who violate these laws. If they guarantee the public that they will defend their private data, they will build trust thus increasing the level of acceptance amongst citizens.
Lastly, in Bahrain, Al-Shafi (2009, p.99) found that the implementation of e-government services did not meet the expectations of the international standards. However, it is worth noting that the adoption of the program in some of the developing nations is handled. While assessing how the Bahrain government has dealt with the application of e-Government services, Al-Shafi (2009, p.101) compared the adoption gap between Qatar and Bahrain. Accordingly, Qatar commenced the adoption of e-Government programs back in the year 2000. After some years, 2007, Bahrain began its implementation. However, Bahrain’s government’s implementation of e-Services in Bahrain has improved and surpassed Qatar. There is a higher acceptance level in Bahrain than Qatar. Meanwhile, among developing nations in the Middle East, Bahrain is considered the top-ranked countries about the adoption of e-Services since it launched the program. Its success in the Middle East should be recognized. However, when compared to other developed countries, it ranks low. The rate of implementation of e-Government services in developed countries is higher and more efficient. This narrows down to the focus of the government, the level of education they give to their citizens, and how they build trust amongst their residents.
The Importance of adopting e-Government services in developing countries
In developed countries, people are living better and more productive lives- this is mainly because of the practical and successful implementation of e-Government services. According to the United Nations (2016, p.124), the difference between developed countries and developing countries is the level of awareness among citizens. In developed countries, people are literate about technological issues and are highly appreciative of self-advancing compared to people in developing countries. As a result, their governments find it easier to convince them to implement e-Government services by merely outlining the benefits associated with the program. For example, in developed countries, democracy makes it likely for citizens to engage in greater participation to assist them in interacting with public servants. Ideally, the government understands the importance of adopting e-Government services. They have a responsibility to educate the public on the benefits they stand to gain by embracing this program. The interests range from political, economic and social, to administrative.
Politically, a report by the United Nations (2016, p.129) states that e-Government services make interactions between citizens and government agencies easier. Through this program, citizens can access government services electronically without having to visit government agencies physically. A direct connection between the citizens and government will promote transparency, accountability, and democracy in society. Once all these are achieved, the value of services delivered will automatically improve. Economically, the program makes the government more effective in its delivery of services. It plays a significant role in the economic enhancement of countries as well as reforms. Moreover, the program offers tremendous services including e-commerce, e-banking, e-procurement, and online trading exchange using electronic transactions between different sectors in society. The results are that businesses within a country grow and succeed because of the technological environment created by the e-Government program (United Nations, 2016, p.123).
Lastly, e-Government also helps administratively. The communication between different departments improves service provision by the government. According to Sheela and Chandran (2014), developing countries need to enhance the use of e-Government services within their departments. The main advantage is to make it simple for governments to delivery service and facilitate easy access and delivery of services without focusing on the bureaucratic processes. The process is likely to reduce corruption with the government and improve the quality of services provide. In developing countries, corruption is rampant, which makes this program a viable option. It ensures interaction between citizens and government institutions are positively enhanced. Therefore, the studies have made it apparent that developing nations need to adopt e-Government programs.
Chapter Three: Research Methodology
Introduction
The research methodology outlines the process used for data collection and analysis. It deals with the methods and principles utilized in the research: it explains the research process, data collection methods, the subjects, the materials used to collect data, the theories used to interpret data, and the techniques used to analyze the data. It also provides a rationale for choosing a particular research method. In this chapter, the procedures and practices used to collect and analyze data are discussed. In scientific research, many ways are available for both studies (qualitative and quantitative). The chapter presents an essential research issue. Thus, it starts by describing the philosophical assumptions about the approaches to be used and the rationale for using the selected methods. It then maps out the procedures and the expected outcomes.
Ontology and Epistemology
Ontology refers to the view that there is no right or wrong answer in qualitative research. Different people view topics different depending on their data. This view denotes that the world is either that of subjectivism or objectivism. Ideally, objectivism considers entities to exist independently from social actors that do not influence reality and espouses predictability across scenarios and situations. On the other hand, subjectivism emphasizes the continual creation of phenomena as a result of the activities of social actors. The concept of a socially constructed reality stems from the interpretive philosophy, where different actors have different perceptions because of individual views of the world (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2009, p.121). In qualitative studies, the outcome depends on the kind of data obtained. The study relies on responses from people with different value sets, backgrounds, and beliefs. Based on the concept of ontology, it is expected that the reaction will be diverse and varied. Therefore, using an appropriate method of collecting data and analyzing to provide an accurate reflection of the perceptions surrounding the topic is important.
Epistemology relates to what people regard as acceptable knowledge. According to Saunder, Lewis, & Thornhill (2009, p.137), epistemology separates objects from social actors and consider observable facts as valid and applicable. Alternatively, the concept tries to unveil the facts that explain how social actors affect phenomena. This perspective is that of interpretivism and positivism. In short, positivist philosophy emphasizes facts and data collected empirically. It uses statistical tools to test hypothesis prescribing the relationship between the different variables.
Similarly, interpretivists believe that what is factual is constructed by social actors- social participants or actors create or build their reality and interpretation of the world. They also interpret the actions of other social actors, which explains bias in researchers perspectives- they have their understanding of facts. In this regard, qualitative studies use inductive methods to interpret the perceptions of participants. By using techniques such as questionnaires, the responses of participants are analyzed based on themes and patterns. From an ontological perspective, interpretivism and positivism are subjective and objective respectively. However, this research employs interpretivism (subjectivism) because it deductively interprets data obtained from survey questionnaires. It relies on the themes and patterns in the responses of participants to answer the research questions.
Research Design
According to Kumar et al. (2007, p.67), research design refers to the plan on where and how the collection of data is to be carried out. It also involves the researcher’s plan for testing the research hypothesis and answering the research questions. In this study, a deductive approach is used to assess the research question. The study begins by examining different pieces of literature on the topic to understand the general perception of the factors impacting the adoption of e-Services in developing countries, including Bahrain. The study establishes a theoretical framework based on what the literature says, and this is used to guide the research.
Ideally, research can be categorized based on its purpose or techniques used to conduct research. For instance, studies based on observation, survey, questionnaires, and empirical or experiments are among studies categorized by methods. However, studies that focus on showing the nature of the decision-making process represent studies based on purpose (Zikmund et al., 2013, 87). In this regard, the current research is categorized by its purpose and technique. Itrelies on survey questionnaires to achieve its goal, which is to examine factors that impacting the adoption of e-Services in Bahrain.
Research Model
Many theories have been developed by scientists to study the adoption of different technologies in their environment. In literature, the model referred to as the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) was developed by psychologists (Venkatesh et al., 2003, p.430). Their objective was to explain the behaviors of citizens towards the implementation of new technologies, and their attitudes towards these technologies. UTAUT introduces constructs based on four main determinants: effort expectancy, performance expectancy, facilitation conditions, and social influence. This theory aims at discovering factors that lead to the adoption and acceptance of ICT through the four key drivers. According to Ahmad et al. (2012, p.120), the four key constructs explain 70% of the usage behavior of citizens and their acceptance of new technological advancements.
Performance Expectancy (PE)
PE is the degree to which people perceive that using an accurate system or technology will improve their performance and lives. In the current study, PE is measured based on Bahrain citizens’ perception about the use of e-Government services with regard to it benefits such as effort, time, and money, how it facilitates their communication with government agencies, how it improves the quality of services rendered by the government, and how it provides people with equal opportunities to conduct their businesses with government agencies (AIAwadhi and Morris, 2009, p.586). To explain the PE of e-Services, the study hypothesizes that it will positively influence the acceptance of e-Services in Bahrain.
H1: Performance Expectancy positively impacts the acceptance and adoption of e-Government services among Bahrain citizens.
Effort Expectancy (EE)
EE is utilized to assess the degree of ease about the adoption of e-Government services. It identifies three critical constructs including ease of use, complexity, and perceived ease of usage (Venkatesh et al., 2003, p.434). These constructs are vital in determining the degree of acceptance of e-Government services. In the current research, EE is measured based on the Bahrain citizens’ perceptions of the program’s “easy to use” and how easy it is to learn how to use it. Therefore, the hypothesis is that effort expectancy positively impact the acceptance and adoption of e-Government services among citizens.
H2: Effort Expectancy positively impacts the acceptance and adoption of e-Government services among Bahrain citizens.
Social Influence
Social influence relates to the degree people’s perception of the importance of the new program and why they should accept it. For many countries, this is an essential factor in enabling people to understand the benefits of the latest technology and understand why using is critical for them. In the current research, the assumption is that social and cultural networks influence people’s behaviors. Therefore, the hypothesis to be tested is that social influence positively affects the acceptance of new technologies.
H3: Social Influence positively impacts the acceptance and adoption of e-Government services among Bahrain citizens.
Facilitation Conditions
Facilitation conditions entail the degree to which citizens believe the new inventions or services are implemented to support them and improve their lives. In the current research, the construct is measured based on individuals’ perception about their ability to use e-Government services. It also measures people the understanding of how the technology influences and fits their lifestyles. The current research hypothesizes that the facilitation conditions positively influence the acceptance e-Services.
H4: Facilitation Conditions positively impacts the acceptance e-Services among Bahrain citizens.
Independent and Dependent Variable
Independent Variables
Culture
Social Influence
Performance Expectancy

Dependent Variable
e-Government Acceptances

Independent Variables
Trust
Effort Expectancy
Facilitation Conditions

Research Approach
Choosing an appropriate method is an important step in any qualitative or quantitative research. For this study, questionnaires were used to establish the factors that impact the acceptance e-Services. This approach is used in both quantitative and qualitative analysis. The current study investigates the factors that affect the adoption of e-Government services in Bahrain from the views of Bahrain’s citizens. The research will use a quantitative questionnaire approach. According to Hair et al. (2006, p.17), surveys can use both quantitative and qualitative questionnaires. Quantitative questionnaires use forced-choice questions to explore the perceptions of the participants.
On the other hand, qualitative questionnaires use open-ended questions to examine the perception of the participants- the former is more effective when the study aims to achieve a particular purpose. In this case, the study aims to understand whether the two factors (culture and trust) affect the acceptance and adoption of e-Services in Bahrain. Therefore, the research uses both quantitative and qualitative approaches to carry out the study.
Data Collection
The use of multiple methods to collect data guarantees an in-depth understanding of the topic under study. Therefore, the current research will use three methods of data collection, and this will increase the study’s validity (Yin, 2009, p.35). According to Kripanont (2006, p.15), the use of more than one method of data collection in a qualitative and quantitative study is beneficial to the whole review. Where one way is weak, the other techniques compliment it. The three methods used in this research were focus groups, survey questionnaires and content analysis of previous studies. For the content analysis, different pieces of literature that have explored the studied phenomenon were reviewed to establish the general perception about the acceptance and adoption of e-Services in developing nations. This technique helped in comparing Bahrain and other countries about their degree of approval and implementation of e-Government programs.
Survey Questionnaires
Questionnaires are data collection tools used by researchers to gather the thoughts and perceptions of the participants. The validity and reliability of the responses by the participants are determined by the appropriateness of the questions together with the questionnaire design. It is important to make the issues simple and easily understandable to extract the most appropriate and accurate response from the participants (Neuman, 2006), p.27. Ideally, the questionnaire is a standard data collection tool. It is considered more effective when the sample population is large, and when the researcher is planning to survey within a short period. A questionnaire is comprised of well-designed questions that the researcher uses to obtain answers or information from the participants/respondents in a bid to answer the research question (Sekaran & Bougie, 2016, p.51). In this study, a survey questionnaire was utilized to determine the factors that impact the adoption of e-Services in Bahrain. UTAUT model was used.
Neuman (2006, p.38) denotes that questionnaires need to be clear and precise- they should avoid ambiguity by focusing on the perspective of the participants and clarity of the questions. In this study, Leedy, and Ormrod (2005, p.6) four guidelines used to develop a clear questionnaire was followed: using precise and unambiguous language; achieving the research aim; development and planning, distribution, sampling, and collection of the distributed surveys; and creating a clear summary of the responses for analysis. The purpose of the questionnaire was to collect the information about the Bahrain government officials and citizens’ perception about the acceptance of e-Services in Bahrain. The main aim was to understand the needs of the technology and how the public can use it to interact or communicate with the government. The answers to the questions in the questionnaires were important in identifying the potential factors that impact the acceptance of e-Services among Bahrain citizens. Before distribution, the survey was pre-tested and changed to ensure they collected the relevant and most important data for the study. In short, it followed three procedures before its distribution among the participants: development and designing of the questions, modifying and pre-testing the issues, and producing a translation into Arabic to help in collecting data from the Bahrain citizens.
Development and Design of the Questionnaire
The primary data used to collect the data was through a questionnaire. Its design and development relied on the UTAUT model to come up with the most relevant questions that will determine the degree of e-Government services usage in Bahrain and the factors that impact its usage among members of the public. Subsequently, the questionnaire was divided into several other sections to make it easy for participants to read and complete it. Concerning the UTAUT model, the respondents were asked to answer the questions using the five-point scale with five levels: from strongly disagree to agree strongly. Likert scale is the most effective when a study measures the attitudes of respondents and their perceptions about a particular phenomenon. The questionnaire contained a cover letter detailing the aim and significance of the survey and the details of the study. It was written using precise language to make it easier for the respondents to understand and complete. It also emphasized the privacy and confidentiality of the participant’s information. It was separated into two major parts. Part one collected the demographic information of the participants and part two entailed UTAUT model questions used to measure the attitude of the Bahrain people towards the acceptance of e-Government services in Bahrain. A five-point scale was used to measure all the UTAUT constructs with possible responses including: strongly agree=5, agree=4, neutral=3, disagree=2, and strongly disagree=1. The answers to this section were aimed at understanding the perception of the participants regarding the adoption of e-Government in Bahrain and the factors that influenced this behavior among the citizens of Bahrain.
Pre-testing and Modifying of Questionnaires
It is important to ensure that the questionnaire items are clear and can be understood by any person without any difficulty (Sekaran, 2003, p.31). The process of pre-testing was used to ensure that the minimal errors in the questionnaire were reduced and the reliability and validity of the surveys were achieved (Hair et al., 2006, p.11). In the study, the process was carried out using the expert review method by checking the validity of the questionnaire using several ways. First, the questions that were used to measure the UTAUT model was based on and validated by studies that were done in the past such as Hess et al. (2007, p.262). However, the items in the questionnaires were modified to fit the research objective. Second, the questionnaire was also sent to other experts to assess its accuracy in answering questions and addressing the research questions. The experts and the focus group had extensive knowledge about the e-Government usage in developing countries, their application, and factors that influence their usage, and also the knowledge about Arabic culture and language. They reviewed the items both in the English and Arabic versions to make sure that the main focus of the questionnaire was capture in both versions. The items were then distributed to the participants.
Translation of Research questions into Arabic
The official language of Bahrain is Arabic. Most the citizens speak Arabic. Therefore, it was important to translate the questions into Arabic to ensure that each member of the public understood clearly what the items required and completed it without any language barrier. According to Sekaran (2003, p.50), it is important to choose a clear and easily understandable questionnaire language. In the current research, a back-translation procedure was used to translate English into Arabic. The method has been used before to translate surveys, questionnaires and other research instruments to achieve their purpose. It is used to provide quality check and verification of the translated devices by checking whether it captures the main objects and aim of the study. In other words, the questionnaire was first brought into Arabic and back to English to check for the clarity. This process was important because it helped in verifying the language used and whether it was clearly articulated and captured the main questions asked in a clear and understandable manner.
Table: Survey Questionnaire (Parts One and Two)
Part One: Indicate your appropriate response with a tick below the items
Demographic Information Responses
Are you male or female? Male
Female Are you a Bahrain citizen or not? Yes
No Are you working in (e-Government / other Government / NGO / Private / None)?
Are you (Below 18 / 18 – 30 / 31 – 45 / 46 – 59 / Above 59)?
Part Two: Indicate your appropriate response with a tick (The questionnaire is for non-governmental employees).
Constructs Definition Items Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree
Performance Expectancy (PE) PE is the degree to which people perceive that using an accurate system or technology will improve their performance and lives. Using e-Government services will save time and money for me. I will be able to access government department information when I need them: 24 hours a day, 7 days a week I prefer interacting with government agencies through e-offices than face-to-face. I prefer interacting with government agencies face-to-face over e-offices Effort Expectancy (EE) EE is utilized to assess the degree of ease about the adoption of e-Government services. Learning how to interact in e-Government services will be easy for me. My interaction with government agencies through e-Services would be understandable and clear. It would be easier for me to use e-Services than visit physical government offices. Interacting with government agencies through online offices would be helpful for me. It will not be easy for me to use e-offices to interact with government agencies Social Influence
Social influence relates to the degree people’s perception of the importance of the new program and why they should accept it. My close friends think I should use e-Services. If my friends use e-Services, I would also use it. If my friends use e-services, I would not use it. My friends and family think e-Services is helpful if I want to get quality services. Facilitation Conditions Facilitation conditions entail the degree to which citizens believe the new inventions or services are implemented to support them and improve their lives. I have a gadget necessary to access e-Government services. I have access to the internet to use e-Services. I have the guidance I need to use e-Services. I have pressure from my economic class to use e-Government services. I have the necessary internet experience to use e-Services. I do not have access to the internet to use e-Services Table 3: A list of the focus groups to be interviewed
Position Relevance
1 Director of Service Delivery Deals with Service Delivery & Channel Enhancement
2 Project Manager Deals with Service Delivery &Channel Enhancement
3 Chief Channel Management Deals with service delivery and Channel Enhancement
4 Chief Customer Care Deals with customers directly.
5 Acting Director, Change Management & Business Process Reengineering Coordinate government agencies and citizens
Population and Sample
According to Gray (2013, p.27), population entails the number of possible participants the research wishes to be part of the study. The target audiences for the study are Bahrain citizens and non-Bahrain citizens (residents, citizens and visitors). The three groups offer an all-inclusive viewpoint by drawing an inclusive picture of the government’s perception of the implementation of e-Government services. The selection of the participants was random, and the survey questionnaires were sent through WhatsApp and taken to be indicative of the Bahrain government and the public. The required age limit was 18 years, which is an ethical requirement for any scientific research (Horgan, 2015, p.71). Therefore, those that were selected were above the age of 18 years.
Primarily, the questionnaires distributed were 171 in total, with 90 males and 81 females. All the participants were above the age of 18 years, which is a requirement in any qualitative study. The collection of data was conducted in a diverse area in Bahrain. It was done in the capital city and the key government agencies responsible for providing the public with services. With a large number of population, conducting face-to-face interviews and phone interviews was not possible. It would not have been practical or economically to take the approach. Therefore, questionnaires were distributed among the 171 participants to collect their views and perception on the subject matter of the study. Thus, from the two groups of population, the study was able to obtain the opinions and perspective of the government officials, non-citizensand citizens about the acceptance of e-Services in Bahrain. The data provided by the participants helped in answering the question: what factors impact the adoption of e-Services in Bahrain.
Data Analysis Methods
Walliman (2005, p.330) explains data analysis as the process of examining, grouping, categorizing, recombining the raw data collected from participants to find answers to the study questions. The current research has both quantitative and qualitative data. Thus, it will involve both analyses.
Quantitative Analysis
In the quantitative analysis of data, the main processes include creating variables, distributing them across different samples, and creating a relationship between the variables. The most appropriate analysis method for establishing relationships between variables is the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). It was found to the most effective tool for analyzing the quantitative data that was collected during the data collection process. In the current study, two exploratory procedures were used to identify the primary structures of data for each of the constructs. They include Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). Further, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was also used to describe the correlation between the variables. Particularly, the SEM method was utilized to examine the relationship in the UTAUT model as well as also to test the hypothesis using the UTAUT variables. It is a statistical method that applies the approach of hypothesis testing to the analysis of data representing a particular phenomenon.
Qualitative Analysis
Necessarily, the data collection methods involve the gathering of the perception and views of participants. The analysis of such data requires deductive approaches that conclude from the data presented. The conclusion drawn from the study should be rooted in the data collected and performed by the questionnaires. In essence, the analysis and conclusions are based on the evidence provided by the received data. Thus, the following assumptions guide a qualitative analysis technique:
The explanation given by the research about the data should rely on the careful and meticulous examination of the data. It involves interpreting the meaning of primary or raw data.
The researcher should also avoid unwarranted assumptions during the data analysis.
The raw data materials should be carefully analyzed by labeling where they are located.
Data analysis should rely on an iterative process.
In this study, the qualitative analysis was based on the responses of the participants. Because of the multiplicity of their responses, thematic analysis was used to analyze the most common themes in their responses. The issues were based on the UTAUT constructs and how they are connected tostudy questions. Therefore, the qualitative analysis process followed the following procedure:
The responses from the participants were read and investigated carefully.
The critical factors from the UTAUT model were compared with the responses of the participants to find the most common factors that influence e-Government service adoption.
The results were then used to confirm the hypothesis and support the quantitative research data.
Validity and Reliability
In any study, validity and reliability ate two of the most important elements to be considered. It determines whether the research and process involved have been successful. According to Walliman (2005, p.367), reliability refers to the level of accuracy of the data collected. For instance, a reliable study will produce the same results if repeated. However, in technology acceptance studies, reliability refers to the degree of stability and consistency within the different variables with the assumptions made about them by the researcher. In the current study, a reliability analysis was conducted for all the five UTAUT model constructs using the SPSS, using the Cronbach’s alpha. Typically, the value of Cronbach’s coefficient alpha should be in the range of 0.7 to achieve reliability and indicate internal consistency.
Validity, in contrast, is reliant on whether the study answered the study question. It assesses, based on the study results, whether the author was focused on answering the question. In this regard, it demonstrates if the collected data and instruments used measured what they were meant to assess. According to Kripanont (2006, p.15), the test for validity involves content and constructs validity. The study achieved content validity by conducting a pre-test which produced content reliability and validity. Second, applying the confirmatory (CFA) and exploratory (EFA) techniques attain construct validity. Therefore, the research considered all the necessary factors to ensure the study was successful and productive.
Ethical Considerations
Any research must conform to the ethical standards set by the code of ethics in social sciences. In this research, several measures were put in place to comply with the law of ethics. First, the participants were informed of what the investigation was about, its importance and what it aimed to achieve before being given an opportunity to participate. They were given an option of either accepting to participate in the study or not. In short, participation was voluntary. No participant was forced to take part in the research without their informed consent. They were free to withdraw from the process at any time, which means they had the discretion to decide whether to continue with the research or not. The study results were, therefore, obtained from willing and conscious participants.
Second, the study made sure that participants were above 18 years of age. According to the code of ethics, age limit for participants in social sciences is 18 years. Participants were university students and government staff and were above the age limit set by the code of ethics. They were informed that the UTAUT model would be utilized to determine the factors that impacted the adoption of e-Services in Bahrain and were reported that participation was voluntary. There confidentiality and privacy was also a priority. The true identity was concealed. Thus, the anonymity and voluntary participation make the study ethically conscious.
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