1492-1698

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Renaissance Period in Europe
The economy of early modern Europe was affected greatly during the renaissance period especially in the area of trade. The increase in population, better banking services, expanded trade routes, improved manufacturing system among others are the key factors which contributed to the growth of the European economy. The agricultural sector also experienced major changes that affected the economy. The serfdom declined significantly in Europe and most peasants enjoyed the freedom to rent farms and move without restrictions which led to increased labor wages. More peasants also moved to urban areas due to lack of land to rent and live in. As the population increased rapidly during this period, the demand for food also increased and goods became more expensive. As a result of increased population and prices for commodities, most merchants expanded their businesses. The European economy continued to expand steadily to meet the new demands. It also led to overseas explorations and breaking of monopolies as countries formed new ties and trade routes (Backman, 342).
After the fall of the Roman Empire, Christianity remained the major unifying factor in Europe. The internal conflict of the church weakened the powers of the pope. When Martin V. was elected the pope in early 1400, it marked the end of the pope’s power outside the church since he was not interested in politics. During the struggle for power between the pope and emperors, the Italian towns leveraged on it and expanded their independence and power.

In 1454, the Peace of Lodi agreement was signed. This agreement allowed the territories to act independently and to enjoy sovereignty. Resident ambassador’s offices were developed at this time. The effect of the Peace of Lodi agreement is seen until today in the international relationships (Backman, 346)).
The leaders in other parts of Europe such as England, France, and Spain also consolidated powers by developing centralized governments and securing basic resources. The monarchs also began to challenge the power of the nobility after realizing that most of the city residents’ source of income was the trade, therefore, they owed no allegiance to landowners. The monarchs started to employ non-noble subjects to run administrative duties, to maintain order and unity. In 1494, the French King Charles VIII attacked Italy. Spain also attacked Italy and by 1559, Spain took control of the Peninsula and ended the independence of Italian people. This marked the end of the Italian Renaissance. The war exposed northern Europe to the achievements and attitudes of the Italian Renaissance. Italian contributed immensely to the renaissance of Europe Backman, 356).
The reformation mainly refers to the religious revolution in Western churches about the 16th century. The leaders of these reformations were Martin Luther and John Calvin. It is what led to the Protestantism. The reformers wanted the church to be restored back to what it was supposed to be; the spiritual force. Erasmus Rotterdam was the chief advocate of liberal Catholic reform that fought the popular superstitions and moral abuses. Martin Luther contributed immensely to the reformation by stating some of the major doctrinal deviations practiced by the church. Others who contributed to the reformation include Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin among others (Backman, 360).
In England, the reformation was more political than religious. The reformation forced the Catholic Church also to initiate some changes and by the end of the Reformation period, Catholic was no longer the same as it was before. The church experienced a counter-reformation where some major accomplishments were made. Early modern Europe underwent a religious reformation, change in business plan and strategy, most countries start exploring overseas for market and food supply. The politics also experienced changes with countries consolidating powers and forming ties (Backman, 362).

Work Cited
Backman, R. Clifford, The Culture of the West, Volume One: To 1750: A History, Oxford University Press, 2012.