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DISCOURSE ANALYSES
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Discourse Analyses
The following part analyzes the six discourse phenomena that exist in the world of communication. Different discourses have different concepts that users and the society can relate to their daily activities. Understanding the essential attributes of the discourse implies that users will have clear guidance on the reflective language. They provide a platform upon which better understanding of concepts and lecture content can take place. The six discourse phenomena in the discussion include:
Lexical Chains Phenomena
Lexical chains refer to words in a sequence, which span short or long distances. Ideally, lexical words are independent of grammatical structures. The effects of the text sprout from the cohesiveness of the text and its structure. The lexical chain provides a convenient context for the resolution of texts and the identification of the term that it represents. The use of lexical chains ensures that an audience captures the ideal details of a statement as it eliminates incidences of understanding a word for it is not (Silber and McCoy 2002; p. 490). A typical example of a lexical chain is “Inhabitant, Resource- web.” Thus, lexical chains can be applied in many functions to help individuals grasp essential information in the shortest time possible. Barzilay and Elhadad (1999; p. 112) explain that the motivation for using lexical chains is to ensure that a computationally efficient tool creates summaries automatically.

Besides, the process ensures that a document size is diminished efficiently yet its central meaning remains.
The ideal lexical items should be words that have phrases bearing the same meaning. Subsequently, the words should be related to the same topic and form a dense chain of the same magnitude for every other item listed in the list. However, a lexical chain should demonstrate independence. Notably, each lexical item should demonstrate the capacity to exist on its own in one chain. Strings that consist of single elements must also demonstrate their dense abilities, which ought to be linked to facilitate the description of broader concepts. The target and source of the links also represent the lexical items and may relate to other several other dense chains.
The identification of appropriate words to form lexical chains is essential. Terms and phrases that are associated with meaning qualify to be members of a lexical chain. Nouns and compounds such as “small talk, cellar door or university council member” form appropriate candidates for input in a lexical chain. An adjective-noun combination, whereby a modifying adjective influences the meaning of the word creates a significant element, which influences the meaning of words or items. For instance, when discussing an economic subject, using an adjective such as dirty money shifts the focus to an issue such as crime. Remus advises that the ideal lexical expressions should be short (2012; p. 3). Longer phrases should only be considered when the concept of the phrase is not cohesive and is different. Words that do not bear significant meaning in a lexical chain should be eliminated. The correct process of selecting words for a lexical chain should start with the selection of the words first. Subsequently, identifying the relatedness of the words and their criterion helps in the identification of the relevance of the chain members. When an appropriate word is found, it can be added to update the sequence of the chain. Lexical chains should demonstrate uncertainty and transitivity. Remus gives an example whereby forms of transport such as the car, bus, lorry, and airplane may be considered (2012; p. 4). It indicates that a dense chain could be formed depending on the mode of transport such as by road, by air or even categorize the words according to public transport means. The annotation process is dependent on human intuition processes, whereby common sense rather than knowledge is considered inessential for the analysis.
Accordingly, text discourses do not necessarily represent sets of sentences. Preferably, they form sentences and phrases, which tend to men the same thing. Cohesion in lexical analyses is attained through back references, semantic word relations, and conjunction. The process allows several links using the same lexical item and formula. However, it is essential to pay attention to the meaning of the words and compounds based on the speech pattern. When the correct details are included in a chain, they form an ideal annotation recipe that gives the right direction to reach a common ground.
Metadiscourse Phenomena
The Metadiscourse phenomenon refers to linguistic self-expression, which refers to an evolving text depending on a writer’s experience and persona. Metadiscourses are essential in communication as they provide a platform upon which users can react on the meaning of a text and gain prominence that can be applied on text to create sense, referential ideas, and propositions on a subject. Ädel (2005; p. 1155) explains that understanding the reflexive effects of metadiscourse provide an effective platform upon which the complexity of a metalinguistic phenomenon is assessed. For instance, Aguilar, (2008; p. 66) explains that metadiscourses help in the assessment of how broad or narrow an approach is to an audience. Besides, metadiscourses provide the first and third roles of the essential functions to follow when organizing texts. For instance, the application of a metadiscourse in an introductory segment of text would differ compared to when it is used in the discussion section. According to Ädel, the term metadiscourse provides a reassuring objective in which the scientific concept of an issue draws firmly to assure the creation of a stylistic intention in the use of a language (2005; p. 158). For other scholars, the metadiscourse provides salient linguistic features in which writers serve particular rhetorical purposes for the sake of their writing.
Some scholars opt to view metadiscourse as a different tool. They fail to acknowledge that it possesses the same level as other forms of discourse phenomena. However, Pérez-Llantada (2010; p. 52), believes that metadiscourse provides a plausible mechanism upon which it can convey messages more efficiently. Apparently, whenever language is used to communicate human experience, the speaker and the audience should establish an ongoing form of activity that supports the exchange of information. Besides, personal relationships with audiences may have an impact on the outcomes of communication. Accordingly, Al-Rubaye (2015; p. 57) describes that metadiscourse may also refer to the propositional meaning that stretches thinly to determine a linguistic item in a discussion.
The subcategories of metadiscourses form various approaches including the linguistic, rhetoric and functional roles. The metadiscourse models provide distinct definitions, external and internal boundaries of its functions and categories and theoretical foundations. The models rely on the principle that language performs several functions. It provides two planes of discourse: the interactive and ideational categories, of the use of a language. Users negotiate affairs with each other when they make text. The utterances made are by-products of acts that ought to be performed or the most appropriate features for communication. Al-Rubaye cites Williams who mentions interactive functions of metadiscourse including emphatics, hedges, sequencers, attributes, topicalizers and narrators (2015; p. 62). The metadiscourse categories are instrumental in providing ideas, facts, and opinions on a topic.
Alternatively, a metadiscourse model may be textual and interpersonal. The modifications of the metadiscourses provide temporal connectives, considered essential for better understanding of the intended meaning of a writer. Similarly, participant-oriented metadiscourses play instrumental roles in engaging readers and identifying people’s reactions depending on the mode of communication and participation adopted. In most instances, writers tend to pay attention to the counterarguments that may arise out of a statement. Aligning the intended objectives of a text and its stated function provide a reliable method to construct inter-propositional relations on the application of participant-oriented metadiscourse.
Shifters Discourses
The main aim of communication is to pass a message and ensure that it is well understood. Poor understanding of the news may lead to detrimental outcomes especially when delicate matters are involved. The receiver of a message must perceive it as the sender intended it. If the sender encoded the message in a particular fashion, it is imperative that the underlying code of the message must be considered. The communication can only be considered complete when the intended message has been passed. Shifters are vital as they identify any shifts that take place in communication or a language. The shift takes place between the addressee and the speaker who rely on deictic and non-deictic speech parts. Shifters are synonymous with turn taking when making speeches. Shifts are the conception of the word whereby the perspectives present deictic pronouns and adverbs of place and time. Accordingly, Kennedy and Inkpen (2006; p. 111) mention that shifters involve notions of deixis and references, which can be used to differentiate the main attributes of linguistics. The shifters can combine functions to make a combined indexical symbol. Shifters are considered to have the same meaning. However, according to Zimmermann and Féry (2010; p. 62), the shifters should not apply to more than an item at a time. The linguistic code of shifters makes it easy to distinguish the constituents of its language amongst other discourse patterns. Some of the indexical symbols such as personal pronouns are evidence of the unique uses of shifters. Words such as “I” and “You” are unusual and represent some of the general categories on the uses of shifts.
In their book, Zimmermann and Féry (2010; p. 61), highlight that shifters can take up categories of being designators, connectors and even adopt particular gender. A referential deictic function of shifters helps analyze speeches into constituents and its major events. Kennedy and Inkpen (112) comment that shifters can be maintained and to help create a phonologically sensible statement. Besides, proper use of shifters is linked to an efficient poetic and metalingual function of a message whereby the signifier level can be built from the available members of a lexical function. The message is elucidated further by the fact that the signifier level of the message represents a system of assignations that are signified within metalingual functions and the signifier that ought to be explained.
Thus, the current framework of linguistics makes it impossible to identify whether the use of shifters takes place as is recommended. However, the presence of a dynamic model that offers relevant guidance on the use of shifters seeks to create an element of speech that adheres to the subjectivity of language. It also creates a satisfactory framework upon which further analysis of the discourse of the use of shifters can be assessed. Despite the unique elements of shifters, a better understanding of its use in literature and linguistics is evidence of why further analyses on the use of shifters must be considered.
Information Structures
The structure of information has a profound impact on how individuals refer to entities in the world. The introduction of discourses is also dependent on the nature of discourses introduced. The real world of knowledge and its inferences play an influential role in modulating information structures. Besides, information structures guide speakers to select particular nouns and pronouns as strategies to ensure the smooth flow of information. It provides a distinct mechanism for the introduction of new features of expression and the modification of information. Information structure plays an instrumental in creating the language structure and constructing a varied form of referential word orders and morphological marking (Féry and Krifka 2009; p.3). The relevant categories of information provide a viable framework upon which status part of grammar can be assessed and gain a better understanding of the meaning of a statement.
Information structure refers to the way in which information is organized for better understanding. Human languages should be arranged in ways that reflect its purpose and utterance. The information contained in a statement makes up its structure. How it is uttered also determines the nature of understanding of the statement that individuals may have regarding the statement. The use of information structure is useful as it also enables individuals to identify how they ought to make phrases and utterances. They also play instrumental roles in differentiating the considerations that ought to be given to make the statement make the sense it was meant to attain.
Information structures shape languages in various forms. Firstly, Zimmermann and Féry give an example whereby it can be used as a form of reference. Information structures have a substantial effect on how individuals refer to entities in the world. The impacts of the references have multiple dimensions including definiteness, the use of pronouns and modifications. Several languages including English rely on various expression for definite and indefinite information sources. The information structure is an essential guide to the selection of appropriate pronouns and other referring expressions. Speakers are likely to use pronouns, which give efficient shorthand mechanisms of referring to already mentioned prominent referents by avoiding the need for repetition. Researchers also agree that the choice of expression is dependent on the salient features of its accessibility.
The noun morphology of a statement is dependent on its information structure. Languages use morphological markings to indicate their grammatical roles. Languages are also reliant on information status markers, which occur as objects or subjects depending on the topical entity. It is essential to note that the noun morphology is dependent on the structure of the language (Arnold et al. 2013; p.407). The structural information property of a statement is dependent on the text position. The nature of an information structure also forms the grammatical systems of its language and in turn brews the necessary cross-linguistic variation. The words are organized along various independent but interacting dimensions all of which focus on ensuring that a statement is easily understood and minimizes confusion.
The effects of information variation extend in word order or even constituent orders. They ensure that functions of word order variations create broad generalizations, which ensure the ease of access to information. Information structures provide the relevant framework upon which complex phrases can be made while shorter ones can also be constructed. Thus, the relevance of information structures is to have independent effects on its word order and ensure that statements make sense and easy to understand.
Textual Metaphors
Textual metaphors comprise of ideational and interpersonal metaphors, all of which propose the description and inclusion of phrases. Textual metaphors are representations and ideational and interpersonal metaphors in a text. There are several types of textual metaphors. The primary aim of using textual metaphors is to differentiate between informal texts and formal ones. The five types of textual metaphors as defined by He, Yang and Wen (2015; p. 347) include verbalization of conjunction groups, nominalization of conjunctive verbal groups, prepositional of conjunction groups, conjuctionalization of conjunctive adverbial groups and zero conjunctive adverbial groups.
The conjunctive system in the English language conjoins two simple sentences depending on the features of their signals. The signals are dependent on the lexical, contextual, logical, and stylistic meanings of the statements. However, the meaning of a textual metaphor can only be realized when the statement is inherent and imposes meaning based on the signals selected. Developing a clear understating of a text based on the textual metaphor plays instrumental roles in enabling individuals to use original words while describing different statements. The development of a clear understanding in the initial place is essential as it provides a convenient method for giving descriptions in unique ways. Textual metaphors invoke critical thinking and enable persons to offer unique expressions of a subject while adhering to the basic principles of a language.
Discourse Metonymy
Metonymy refers to a non-literal speech figure whereby the name of an item may be substituted for another considered related to it. In several instances, individuals have been concerned regarding the relationships between metonymy and metaphors. The relationship emanates from the fact that they share several similarities. Similar to metaphors, metonymy relationships are made between two concepts. Similar to metaphors, the non-literal meaning of a text is always intended. Disambiguation is also a vital element for metonymy, whereby it provides a viable platform for interpretation of a text. Similar to metaphors, metonymy makes use of shared context between the listener and the speaker. However, unlike in metaphors, metonymy pays no attribution of the intended characteristics. The relationship is often made for the convenience of reference and not to make an attribution of another concept.
The use of metonymy saves time. It may be cumbersome to give full names of what an individual is referring. Besides, when an individual is unaware of what they are referring to, metonyms offer a convenient method for expression without necessarily sounding wordy. Moreover, the metonyms provide a feasible method to refer to salient entities in the context of the speaker and the listener (Csordas; 1993). The recognition of the type of metonymy in use offers a reliable way to ensure that the intended referent related to what the metonym refers to is explained. Alternatively, the predicative referent of the metonymic noun phrase can provide a convenient way to ensure that the words are similar to those that the metonyms are referring literally. Some of the approaches commonly used as metonyms include referring to producers using their product names such as: (producer for a product- He bought a BMW).
It is essential to recognize the syntactic and semantic approaches that are associated with metonyms. The syntactic approaches tend to feature an agreement that ought to take place in a statement. For” instance, a typical syntactic phrase is when an individual mention, “She was reading the Shakespeare.” The approaches provide a convenient method for understanding strategies that foster the importance of understanding statements. Markert and Hahn’s critique of approaches of metonyms indicates that the literal interpretations of texts play instrumental roles in ensuring that violations of the language are minimized. Accordingly, Forceville (2009; p. 53) mentions that metonyms can only be considered when it is evident that multi-sentence are considered from a broader perspective. The literal and figurative interpretations should be treated on an equal basis, which fulfills the aptness of conditions that conform to known relationship patterns.
Metonymy resolutions offer a convenient way to ensure literal language phenomena exists and serves it functions. Besides, the consistency of the language provides relevant knowledge of relationships between various concepts and takes into account the relationship that exists between concepts. It also pays attention to the selection restriction variations over metonymic selections, which also exist in varying variations.
Relative importance of the Discourses
Discourse phenomena provide a feasible method to intervene between texts and offer a better way to understand information. Communication events such as those dealing with the production and consumption of media rely on discourse analyses to realize their objectives. The discourses offer a convenient to conduct micro and macro reviews of texts and their meanings. Discourse productions also offer a socio-cognitive model, which account for topic structures in the production of new texts based on the subject of discussion.
Discourse phenomena have also been linked with the abilities to gain a better understanding of international and cross-cultural forms of media discourse and production. The economic and cultural dominance actualized in texts provide a viable method to facilitate explicit comparisons of media product throughout nations. They also offer a framework upon which stylistic and rhetorical features of media discourses can be assessed. According to Arnold (2013; p.405), the discourse phenomena provide a feasible method to hypothesize, read and view, produce, write and further strengthen relevant micro-detailed communication analyses for better understanding by the audience.
Discourse phenomena control communicative events such as the production and consumption of media discourses. Similarly, memory models in both experimental and psychological terms derive their rules from the use of particular phenomena. The discourse denotes written and spoken communication. The discourse plays an instrumental role in the conceptualization the generalization of conversations within every context and modality of communication (Kibrik, 2011; p. 564). The vocabulary given is essential in generating given fields of intellectual inquiry within areas of social practice and even in media platforms. Those who participate in the production of plays also admit that the use of discourse phenomena plays instrumental roles in transforming the concept of their plays. Hidden meanings and thematic views can be generated from a better understanding of the discourse depending on the concept selected. An individual who wants to express their dissatisfaction over specific services issued by the government may apply a rhetoric discourse methodology to drive their point home. Besides, they provide a relevant framework upon which the society can ensure the proper use of the language. Adequate analyses of media texts demand a systematic approach to media discourses. Thus, those who use the characteristic features must be aware of the devices in use and their symbolic meanings to help their audiences also relate to specific properties and descriptions.
Accordingly, discourses present the relevant systems of language including grammar, phonology, and vocabulary. Discourses have varying definitions, but majorities choose to look at them as any other pieces of extended language: written or spoken. It has unity and purpose and seeks to identify a unifying factor in the language depending on its core features.
Arnold et al. justify that the use of discourses offers a viable framework upon which the competence of a language can be developed (2013; p 406). Human beings can portray a better understanding of grammar and communicative competence when they employ the appropriate use of the language. Ideally, there should be a consensus in words on the same language. The same applies to the way the communicative content of utterances should be assessed in support of inferences. The communicative context and understanding of concepts should be organized in ways that any other conversation analyses can yield viable insights and ensure the appropriate referring of expressions across several utterances. The use of discourses ensures that communicative functions achieve their intended objectives. They also make sure that they yield the relevant insights and distributions of expressions to ensure that the intended meaning of a subject is passed.
Two Examples of Discourse Phenomenon
Rhetoric
Rhetoric refers to an art of effective persuasive of speaking and writing, particularly in the creation of figures of speech. The language is designed to create a persuasive or impressive effect that would generate meaning and sincerity in a text. Writers who use discourse try to motivate, persuade, and inform their audiences of specific situations. Rhetoric plays instrumental roles in enabling the society to relate better to particular conditions in their environments. Since ancient times, rhetoric has been used to inform audiences of specific situations. For instance, political rhetoric is known to yield specific reactions depending on the discourse in use. Contrariwise, classical rhetoric involves trained professionals to ensure that they remain effective in persuading the public in specific forums and institutions. Rhetoric models of speech have been useful in bringing about a better understanding of issues that affect the society, without necessarily using harsh language. Individuals who engage in rhetorical communication agree that language should not be rigid and instead change depending on the use of the language. Ideally, using rhetoric is more like trying to construct a new world of persuading readers to share a person’s views between within a text. It ensures that readers speak or produce meaning to persuade the objective of testing and reporting knowledge in a superior style.
Syntax
Syntax refers to a mechanism in which words are organized in phrases to create well-formed sentences that produce meaning in a language. Syntax forms a major component of grammar and provides a clear methodology to ensure that texts make sense. The uses of syntax comply with given rules and statements in speech while others do not. Today, users can follow the rules unconsciously derived from their early development of the language. The small differences and mistakes that may occur in communication may be attributed to dialect and the language rules of people from different origins. Besides, the relationships generated from statements should yield meaning and convince the audience to accept findings by sufficiently demonstrating the process of communication-based on shreds of evidence to support conclusions. Poor syntax distorts the meaning of statements. It diminishes the efficacy of communication and disorients the audience. Thus, following syntax ensures that text follows a sequence that enhances better text understanding.
Conclusion on Discourses
The above paper demonstrates that discourses are essential mechanisms of communication. They ensure that conceptions of persuasion in language are attained. Audiences can easily understand and notice the difference in the mode of communication different from conventional methods that they are used to. Some of the patterns of discourses ensure that persons enjoy texts using a different mechanism of argumentation. Language provides various forms of expression whereby the mode of expression differentiates individual understanding and enjoyment of the text. To this effect, the use of discourses provides a reliable mechanism for communication for individuals on various fronts of the society. Those in the media admit that discourses offer platforms upon which they can analyze contentious issues in the community while maintaining decorum and professionalism. To this effect, the language should be used as a tool not just for emotional meaning or psychoanalysis, but also for purposes of communication, and capturing the attention of the audience.
References
Ädel, A. 2005, “On the boundaries between evaluation and metadiscourse.” Strategies in academic discourse, 153-162.
Arnold, J.E., Kaiser, E., Kahn, J.M. and Kim, L.K., 2013. Information structure: linguistic, cognitive, and processing approaches. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 4(4), pp.403-413.
Al-Rubaye, M.H.K., 2015. Metadiscourse in the academic writing of EFL and ESL Arabic-speaking Iraqi graduate students. Missouri State University.
Aguilar, M., 2008. Metadiscourse in academic speech: A relevance-theoretic approach (Vol. 317). Peter Lang.
Barzilay, R. and Elhadad, M., 1999. Using lexical chains for text summarization. Advances in automatic text summarization, pp.111-121.
Csordas, T.J., 1993. Somatic modes of attention. Cultural anthropology, 8(2), pp.135-156.
Féry, C. and Krifka, M., 2009. Information structure. Retrieved from http://user.uni-frankfurt.de/~cfery/publications/Information_structure.pdfForceville, C., 2009. Metonymy in visual and audiovisual discourse. In The World Told and the World Shown (pp. 56-74). Palgrave Macmillan UK.
Kennedy, A. and Inkpen, D., 2006. Sentiment classification of movie reviews using contextual valence shifters. Computational intelligence, 22(2), pp.110-125.
Kibrik, A.A., 2011. Reference in discourse. Oxford University Press.
Pérez-Llantada, C., 2010. The discourse functions of metadiscourse in published academic writing: Issues of culture and language. Nordic Journal of English Studies, 9(2), pp.41-68.
He, Q., Yang, B. and Wen, B., 2015. The textual metaphor from the perspective of the relator. Australian Journal of Linguistics, 35(4), pp.334-350.
Remus, S., 2012, Lexical Chain Annotation Guideline. Retrieved online from https://www.lt.informatik.tu-darmstadt.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Group_UKP/data/LexChains/guidelines-en_v1.0.pdfSilber, H.G., and McCoy, K.F., 2002. Efficiently computed lexical chains as an intermediate representation for automatic text summarization. Computational Linguistics, 28(4), pp.487-496.
Zimmermann, M. and Féry, C. eds., 2010. Information structure: Theoretical, typological, and experimental perspectives. Oxford University Press.