in the intructions

Education:
Name of student:
Name of institution:

1. Processes for dual-language programs
Definition 1
Dual language development programs are useful curriculums that create literacy practices that helps second learners develop and maintain language literacy. The programs instill cultural knowledge and skills of contemporary trends that are necessary to gain creativity, fluency, and understand the complexity of the language (Diaz-Rico, 2004). Learners eventually develop writing and reading skills, ultimately improving their listening and speaking skills. To excel, majority non-language speakers begin with non-English academics and programs, whereas others use their primary language to build on their oral language skills (Howard et al., 2007).
Definition 2
Dual language education is an academic program taught in two languages. The program has existed in the United States since the 1970s (The Glossary of Education Reform, 2013). There exists English native speakers and non-English speakers, also called the English Language Learners (ELLs) or language-minority students. Dual language programs provide non-native speakers the opportunity to learn and be proficient in English. This guarantees equal opportunities in completing their education. The programs are designed efficiently to develop English content knowledge, fluency, and cultural proficiencies necessary to succeed in the subject (The Glossary of Education Reform, 2013).
Definition 3
Dual language represents programs that provide content instructions and literacy instructions to students using two languages that promote bi-literacy, bilingualism, and multi-cultural competence.

A higher population either foreign language students who desire to become native speakers.
Personal Reflection
As an educator, I support the use of dual-language programs to assist learners’ gain creativity and fluency in understanding the complexity of their second languages. This affects me as it is the role of educators to help learners develop excellent reading and writing skills and improve their speaking and listening abilities. Personally, I am concerned with dual-language programs as they promote proficiency in the English language; hence equalizing opportunities and multicultural competence among students.
2. Types of bilingual students
Definition 1
Diaz-Rico argues that dual-language learners can be divided into a group, depending on their diverse curricular and schooling background. The author explains that there exist four different types of bilingual students including limited bilingual, balanced bilingual, monolingual (preliterate of native language), and monolingual (literate of native language) (Kleyn, 2016). Balanced bilingual students achieve literacy and fluency in these two languages. Limited bilingual are fluent and culturally knowledgeable in their primary language, and sometimes in English. However, the academic skills and perfection are limited in both languages (Diaz-Rico, 2004).
Definition 2
Moradi classifies the existing types of individual bilinguals into different classifications. The first one includes the dominant and balanced bilinguals (Moradi, 2014). Balanced bilinguals acquire mastery and proficiency in the two languages, whereas dominant bilinguals are more competent in only one language. Coordinate, compound and subordinate bilinguals are gauged depending on how the linguistic codes are stored and organized by the individual (Moradi, 2014). Thirdly, late and early bilinguals are classified depending on when an individual acquires the second language during the post-adolescence and pre-adolescence stages of life, respectively.
Definition 3
The article establishes three types of bilingualism including the coordinated, compound, and late bilingualism. Coordinates and compound bilingualism develop during the early childhood period, whereas late bilingualism develops the second language after the age of 12 years (Thebrain.mcgill.ca., n.d.)
Personal Reflection
I agree that English learners should be divided into several groups depending on their language proficiency. This guarantees that every team acquires the required skills and knowledge to master the second language. The four common types of bilingual students include the literate monolingual, the preliterate monolingual, the limited, and balanced bilingual language speakers. However, balanced and dominant bilingual classifications also help in gauging linguistic codes among students.
3. Principles of language transfer
Definition 1
Most educators closely align and engage different practices through modeling, simulations, and problem-solving skills to guarantee language transfer (Saville-Troike & Barto, 2016). Educators of the language depend on these principles before transferring the language, as well as using parallel problem-solving skills, analogies, and metacognitive reflections to transfer and interpret context (Diaz-Rico, 2004). Language transfer depends on the production and comprehension of the second language, which is influenced by the skills and knowledge acquired using the first language.
Definition 2
Brown argues that principles of language transfer depend on the age factors such as the acquisition time of the first language, psychological factors such as cognitive and behavioral methods, cultural and social factors, among other linguistic factors (Brown, 2000).
Definition 3
The National Center on Universal Design for Learners argue that there are three main principles necessary for acquiring a new language. Firstly, students must be provided with multiple means to represent what they learn. This may include auditory or visual representations (Udlcenter.org., 2014). Secondly, teachers must provide means of expression and action to significant movement impairments and strategic abilities to achieve learning tasks. Thirdly, engagement of learners enables them to feel motivated. These commitments help instill personal relevance, culture, background knowledge, and sensitivity during education (Udlcenter.org., 2014).
Personal Reflection
Language transfer is critical as it helps students simulate the existing problems and model skills, metacognitive reflections, and analogies to understand and interpret the complex context of the second language. This affects me as i believe that all educators must instill this knowledge and skills to students through visual and auditory representations to help them master the language.
4. Bi-literacy
Definition 1
Students approach life situations using two languages; through applying the knowledge where it best applies (Hornberger, 2012). Students’ attain high levels of scholarship in both languages, especially for the literacy purposes. Students develop writing and reading skills in their second language, simultaneously gaining knowledge in their listening and speaking skills. Learners expand their knowledge of these languages through practice and advanced learning. Additionally, teachers instill this culture in bicultural environments in the classroom (Rodriguez-Valls, 2009).
Definition 2
The author argues that bi-literacy is a condition whereby communication occurs in two or more languages (Schwartz et al., 2008). Programs that facilitate bi-literacy includes classroom schedules, events, interactions, activities, practices, actors, situations, or societies, among others. This model enables a framework that situates teachings in the classroom, research on the two languages, in multilingual communities.
Definition 3
Bi-literacy is any instance where communities occur in more than one language, in speaking or writing. The individuals in the society can fluently speak and write in the two languages (Kempert & Hardy, 2015).
Personal Reflection
Bi-literacy has proved useful as learners expand their skills and language in two languages. Educators are required to assist learners through literacy programs initiated for advanced language learning. I agree with the concept of bi-literacy in the classroom given the diverse cultural mix of multilingual communities during events and interactions in the society.
5. Bi-culturally
Definition 1
Bi-culturally is defined as teachings that help learners maintain, establish, and value their culture, and also respect that of others (Diaz-Rico, 2004). Learners have two or more cultures. Everyone strives to maintain their community and home cultures as their skills in the mastery of English language. The two different cultures in the region blend and co-exist peacefully with each other, both maintaining their heritage. However, conflicting situations arise during the assimilation balancing of both cultures. In most cases, this blending enables shared customs and behaviors between learners including their language and cultures. Cultural frame twisting, therefore, enhances double consciousness in response to the immediate environment.
Definition 2
Wu and Mistry introduce biculturalism and define it as the ability to comfortably and proficiently holding onto one’s culture and heritage in a region or country of settlement. Immigrants from other nations practice biculturalism through holding on to their culture in the receiving society. The minorities become visible in the community through their ethical component of practicing biculturalism in their country (Schwartz & Unger, 2010). Learners also practice bi-culturalism through a personalized blending of cultures in the host country, having friends from both cultures, and appreciating the cultural contexts of other people (Schwartz & Unger, 2010).
Definition 3
Biculturalism is characterized by an environment that incorporates the heritage of two or more cultural practices, identifications, and values (Nguyen & Benet-Martínez, 2013). It also includes salient variables of diverse cultures including ethnic family socialization, language, traditions, and symbols. Mostly, biculturalism emerges from ethnogenesis cultures where both heritage of the receiving and coming learners value and emphasize their heritage (Nguyen & Benet-Martínez, 2013).
Personal Reflection
Personally, I support bicultural teachings as they help learners interacting with others from diverse cultures. Maintaining one’s heritage and culture is beneficial. Consequently, the educator must consider the customs and behaviors of other cultures and respond to the diversification with consciousness. This helps in promoting bi-literacy and biculturalism among students.
References
Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching.
Diaz-Rico, L. (2004).Strategies for teaching English learners 3rd edition. Boston, MA: Pearson.
Hornberger, N. (2012). Bilingual Literacy. The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics.
Howard, E. R., Sugarman, J., Christian, D., Lindholm-Leary, K. J., & Rogers, D. (2007). Guiding principles for dual language education. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
Kempert, S., & Hardy, I. (2015). Children’s scientific reasoning in the context of bilingualism. International Journal of Bilingualism, 19(6), 646-664.
Kleyn, T. (Ed.). (2016). Translanguaging with multilingual students: Learning from classroom moments. Routledge.
Moradi, H. (2014). An investigation through different types of bilinguals and bilingualism. ধর্ম ননরপ঩ ক্ষতার আপ াপে: র্য়র্ননসিংহ ও঩ ূর্মর্ঙ্গ গীনতো, 147.
Nguyen, A. M. D., & Benet-Martínez, V. (2013). Biculturalism and adjustment: A meta-analysis. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44(1), 122-159.
Rodriguez-Valls, F. (2009). Cooperative bi-literacy: Parents, students, and teachers read to transform. English Teaching, 8(2), 114.
Saville-Troike, M., & Barto, K. (2016). Introducing second language acquisition. Cambridge University Press.
Schwartz, M., Share, D. L., Leikin, M., & Kozminsky, E. (2008). On the benefits of bi-literacy: just a head start in reading or specific orthographic insights?. Reading and Writing, 21(9), 905-927.
Schwartz, S. J., & Unger, J. B. (2010). Biculturalism and context: What is biculturalism, and when is it adaptive?. Human Development, 53(1), 26-32.
The Glossary of Education Reform. (2013). Dual-Language Education Definition. [online] Available at: http://edglossary.org/dual-language-education/ [Accessed 31 Jan. 2018].
Thebrain.mcgill.ca. (n.d.). Tool Module: Different Types of Bilingualism. [online] Available at: http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/capsules/outil_bleu20.htmlUdlcenter.org. (2014). The Three Principles | National Center On Universal Design for Learning. [online] Available at: http://www.udlcenter.org/aboutudl/whatisudl/3principles