immune system of the elder adult athlete

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Immune System of Master Athletes
BIBLIOGRAPHY l 2057 Malaguarnera, Lucia, et al. “Acquired immunity: immunosenescence and physical activity.” European Review of Aging and Physical Activity 5.2 (2008): 61-68. Print.
Ageing presents an endless challenge to public health. Essentially, the aging process is associated with feebleness and a decrease in functioning of biological systems. The immune system, as part of the numerous physiological systems in the human body, also undergoes diminished functioning. The term immunosenescence describes this gradual deterioration of the immune system as a result of age. Nevertheless, the question of whether this reduced functionality correlates with the increase in morbidity and mortality remains vague. In their meta-analytical study, Malaguarnera, Cristaldi, and Lipari aim at understanding the phenomenon of acquired immunity. In particular, the authors focus more on the correlation between immunosenescence and physical activity, with regards to elderly individuals (athletes and non-athletes). In this article review, a concise summary and dissection of the information from the works of Malaguarnera, Cristaldi and Lipari will be conducted. Additionally, the essay will incorporate an appraisal of the arguments in the reviewed article.
Increasing evidence indicates that older adults are more prone to illnesses, suggesting that with age, their immune system undergoes changes. Their increased susceptibility suggests that performance of their immune organs such as the thymus is compromised.

In laying the foundation for their argument, Malaguarnera, Cristaldi and Lipari start by discussing the expected changes in the immune system of the elderly. Subsequently, the authors analyze the relationship between acquired immunity and physical activity before relating their findings to immunity in elderly individuals (athletes and non-athletes).
IMMUNOLOGICAL CHANGES IN THE ELDERLY
Thymus. Malaguarnera, Cristaldi, and Lipari described the thymus as “a central lymphoid organ that lies within the superficial region of the superior mediastinum” (62). This organ is fundamental in the immune system as it is accountable for the development of T lymphocytes. The authors outlined that with age, the thymus decreases in size and mass. Intrinsically, the loss is three percent every year until one attains their middle ages. After that, the reduction is by one percent annually. Nevertheless, the authors reiterate that the mechanism underlying shrinkage of the thymus in old age is vaguely comprehended. Additionally, adipose tissue replaces epithelial and thymocytes. The reduced propagation and variation of thymocytes is reliant on the decreased productivity of the thymic epithelial cells (TECS) in relation to thymic-hormonal factorsCITATION Mal08 p 62 l 2057 (Malaguarnera, Cristaldi and Lipari 62).
T Lymphocytes. According to Malaguarnera, Cristaldi, and Lipari, the most significant alteration is the reduction in T-cell population translating to lessened cellular-facilitated responses (62). According to the authors, this reduction or deterioration in function of T-cells may explain the increased susceptibility to diseases in the elderly. Malaguarnera, Cristaldi, and Lipari contend that this decline in the number of T-cells may be related to the gradual shrinking of the thymus resulting from the aging process (62). In addition, the authors contend that a change in T-cell phenotype may aid in explaining their reduced functioning.
B Lymphocytes. Malaguarnera, Cristaldi and Lipari highlight the minimal research conducted on B-lymphocytes and their role in immunosenescence (63). The authors argue that in contrast to studies carried out on the effects of aging on T-cells, research on B-lymphocytes is almost nonexistent. Nevertheless, Malaguarnera, Cristaldi, and Lipari contend that aging alters both the quantity and quality of B-lymphocyte functioning (humoral immunity). Quantitative variations represent a modified amount of “immunoglobulin and antigen-specific Ig-secreting B cell” CITATION Mal08 p 63 l 2057 (Malaguarnera, Cristaldi and Lipari 63). On the contrary, qualitative vicissitudes characterize a change in both the number and performance of B-cells. Additionally, this shift is also apparent in the antibody collection regarding the peculiarities, “isotype” and “idiotype”CITATION Mal08 p 63 l 2057 (Malaguarnera, Cristaldi and Lipari 63).
To reiterate the fact that aging also affects humoral immunity, Malaguarnera, Cristaldi and Lipari cite an earlier study that showed a reduction in the amount of serum antibodies, particularly those responsible for tackling alien antigens (64). In essence, the authors contend that the response to foreign antigens in elderly individuals is diminished. On the contrary, there is enhanced production of B cells that are responsible for secretion of antibodies. Malaguarnera, Cristaldi, and Lipari go on to state that aging alters the B-cell repertoire, diminishing the body’s ability to distinguish antigens (64). The authors give an example of vaccination, which in the elderly, causes overproduction of antibodies that cross-counter with the self-antigens. As such, the authors establish that both quality and quantity vicissitudes contribute to immunosenescence in the elderly.
Immunoglobulins. While longitudinal studies have proved the reduction of B lymphocytes in aging individuals, Malaguarnera, Cristaldi and Lipari contend that this process prompts “monoclonal serum immunoglobulins” and B-cell neoplasm” (64). According to the authors, aging in humans is associated with increased concentrations of IgA, IgG, and IgM in the serum. In contrast, the concentration of IgD decreases. Malaguarnera, Cristaldi, and Lipari quote a study on the effects of aging conducted on mice that showed continued increase in serum levels of IgG and IgM but a decrease in immunization-stimulated cells that produce antigen-specific IgG and IgM (64). Notably, this review, as conducted by the authors, revealed a greater reduction in IgG-producing cells, suggesting the age-linked deficiency in isotype swapping resulting from impaired T-cells. Malaguarnera, Cristaldi, and Lipari establish that indeed aging affects the capacity of B cells generate antibodies, albeit its correlation to the deteriorating function of T-cells.
EXERCISE AND ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
Malaguarnera, Cristaldi and Lipari start by acknowledging the significance of physical activity to the immune system (64). Nevertheless, the authors highlight the importance of understanding the type of physical exercise, its duration, and intensity as these aspects may cause modifications in the immune system. For instance, after an intensive run for three hours leukocytosis is observed in the venous blood of young adultsCITATION Mal08 p 64 l 2057 (Malaguarnera, Cristaldi and Lipari 64). Another study noted an upsurge in the complete number of T lymphocytes after and during a marathon. From their reviews, the authors established that different types of physical activities had significant impacts in immunity alteration. Moreover, it became apparent that duration and intensities of these exercises had disparate impacts on the immune systems of the participants.
EXERCISE IN THE ELDERLY
Malaguarnera, Cristaldi, and Lipari begin by recognizing that elderly individuals engaging themselves in physical activities may have altered immune systems (65). In their review of the literature, the authors observe that endurance training in both male and female master athletes causes lymphocyte propagation, especially after mitogen excitement. In another appraisal, Malaguarnera, Cristaldi, and Lipari noted that old athletic individuals responded better to lymphocyte stimulation with an anti-CD3 monoclonal antibody when compared to their counterparts leading sedimentary lifestyles (65). Intrinsically, the summarize the effects of physical exercise in the elderly under four main parameters. For individuals leading a sedimentary way of life, the Malaguarnera, Cristaldi and Lipari argued that aging caused a decrease in naïve T cells and response to proliferated mitogens, while increasing memory T cells and altering the individual’s response to vaccination (influenza) (65). In contrast, prolonged physical activity (in elderly athletes) resulted in an increase in naïve T cells and increased response to produced mitogens. In addition, endurance training led to improved responses to vaccination and a decrease in memory T cellsCITATION Mal08 p 65 l 2057 (Malaguarnera, Cristaldi and Lipari 65).
According to Malaguarnera, Cristaldi, and Lipari, of importance concerning the effects of physical exercise in the elderly, is the effects on naïve and memory T cells, as this two play a significant role in responding to infections (65). Nevertheless, physical exercise was shown to have no effect on involution of the thymus gland, suggesting it does not prevent immunosenescence.
APPRAISAL
Malaguarnera, Cristaldi, and Lipari carry out a comprehensive review of the literature with the sole objective of acquired immunity through physical activities, especially in the elderly. In their meta-analytic study, the authors employ a systematic approach in a bid to gain fundamental information regarding their subject matter. In the first part, Malaguarnera, Cristaldi, and Lipari review the expected immunological changes in old individuals that lead to immunosenescence. This first discussion clearly highlights the role of T-cells in deteriorating immunity among the elderly. Subsequently, the authors appraise literature on physical activity immunity, focusing particularly on master athletes. From their extensive research, Malaguarnera, Cristaldi, and Lipari conclude that elderly athletes have attenuated immunosenescence due to both innate and acquired immunity as a result of regular exercising.
A significant strength of the study conducted by Malaguarnera, Cristaldi and Lipari is the vast amount of information from which the authors compare and contrast to come up with a comprehensive conclusion. Nevertheless, the study does not incorporate aspects of nutrition and hence the conclusion is somewhat incomplete. In conclusion, there is a need for more studies because the relationship between physical exercises and immunity in the elderly is rarely inquired for presently. In addition, these future studies should incorporate nutrition.

Works Cited
BIBLIOGRAPHY l 2057 Malaguarnera, Lucia, et al. “Acquired immunity: immunosenescence and physical activity.” European Review of Aging and Physical Activity 5.2 (2008): 61-68. Print.