Sociology 2

Sociology
Module 8
1.7. Describe how the definition of the term “race” originated. How has the term changed over time? In your essay, you should also discuss how race has evolved as a social construction. Finally, discuss how race is embedded with social class.
The race originated from a significant division of humanity into various minor groups based on five criteria. First racism shows some biological foundation based on Aristotelian. Second is that the same members may not share the biological characteristics thereby having different races. Third is the biological foundation is inherited from one generation to another allowing observers to identify one’s race concerning his or her ancestors. Forth races depend on the geographical location where one comes from; be it from Africa, North America and South America, Europe or Asia. Finally, the inherited biological foundation manifests itself depending on the physical characteristics such as the color of the eyes, the shape of the nose and eyes, the bone structure the hair texture and also the skin color and other physical characteristics that vary among human beings. Apart from the physical characteristics, the behavioral phenotypes may vary such as intelligence.
The historical perception of race has faced scientific challenges with some people denying the logical coherence concept and the existing races currently. The genetic differences among people from races that are different in nature have had repercussions that are social and historical in nature thus bringing about problems in the society, especially to the albinos.

Today, race is a concept we may think has a meaning which is social in nature that tampers with the understanding which is scientific in the form of the human genetic diversity. The study of genetics varying in different geographical areas in the world for example, between Europe and Africa, shows that there is no single absolute genetic difference. The race is an agreement that a powerful dominant group agrees, accepts and imposes. The agreement determines the status of various groups of humanity in life.
The race has evolved as a social construct without the human being acknowledgment. The day to day life activities of humans is affected by race. How people view each other affects various aspects of their lives: From the types of jobs people have the level of income they acquire, the places they live, the kind of friends different people have, the way of interaction with each other, the type of food people eat the type of schools people prefer and the way people handle the life issues. The race has to intersect with the domains of life and the society.
The existence of race requires the people to agree and accept it exists and impose the existence. Race determines how we perceive ourselves and others. The race is a social construct proposed by a powerful dominant group in the society. The race brought about boundaries in group membership concerning the biological foundation. For example, the blacks, especially the Africans, are viewed inferior to the whites. Frankenberg said “The social structure that we live in is affected by at least one social construction, i.e. race” and “if you live in a particular kind of social structure, you don’t just inhabit it, but it also shapes who you are, and how you are” (Frankenberg 1993); she explains that race is an indicator of difference in humanity. Race shows the sort of status people have in the society since the race is ontologically subjective, people may agree to a certain status that they don’t belong or fit. (Ore and Cloud State 2013)
The race is embedded in the social class in that we classify and categorize people following the differences viewed. People like the Europeans place themselves at the top, and this is only a belief and agreement among the people. Other regions are ranked more successful and superior than others. The race has brought about inequalities in the society where some view themselves superior to others.
Module 9
2.0 Compare and contrast homophobia and heterosexism. Provide detailed examples.
Homophobia is an individual feeling or re-thinking where one is afraid of being in close quarters with people of the same-sex attracted people. It is the fear of homosexuality, be it lesbianism or gay men. Homophobia includes self-denial of homosexuality. Whereas heterosexism is an ideological system that is against homosexuality in conclusion that heterosexual relationships are the only norm. The heterosexual view themselves as superior thereby they dominate in the society. The similarity between homophobia and heterosexism is that both of them are against people of the same-sex being attracted to each other. The people would not like to be associated with the homosexual. They find being on the right side, and the homosexual should have a chance to justify themselves since they on the wrong side of sexual life perception.
There are many differences between the heterosexism and homophobia despite them being against a common sexual activity which is homosexuality. First, homophobia is based on an individual perception where the individual has a fear of being associated with homosexuals or being referred to as a homosexual. Whereas heterosexism is institutional based or culture based people tend to follow a certain culture or bid to certain institution rules and stand firm against homosexuality. An example of Australia include people being hostile to gays and committed lesbian relationships that were dramatized by the Federal Parliamentary to the Act of Marriage to eliminate same-sex marriages. Here the parliament act was followed to stand against gay and lesbianism.
Second, based on the aspects: Homophobia involves attitude and behavioral patterns that people have against homosexuals. Here the individual attitude matter most which is the fear in a certain individual of the homosexual. Where in heterosexism ideologies are included in the major of the society? With the example of an Australia, the movement against gays and lesbian was because they were against the marriage Act in the Constitution.
Third, based on forms of oppression: Homophobia leads to prejudice stigmatization, discrimination, and labeling of people. If one is told that on is homosexual, the person may feel discriminated by the rest and may experience stigmatization, whereas in heterosexism goes past the personal forms of oppression to the national or state level policies such as the anti- homosexuality policies and constitution act. An example of Australia where the homosexuals went against Act of Marriage that confirms marriage should be between only between opposite-sex. Also in a country like Nigerian which is the most homophobic country in the world. Nigeria held a 2013 poll that it was concluded that 97 percent of the citizens are against homosexuality and the same-sex couple are imprisoned for 14 years (Strasser 2014).
Despite the fight by the homosexuals for their rights homophobias and heterosexisms, the act is against homosexuality. Prophet Spencer said “Homosexuality is an ugly sin, repugnant to those who find no temptation in it, as well as to many past offenders who are seeking a way out of its clutches. It is embarrassing and unpleasant as a subject for discussion but because of its prevalence, the need to warn the uninitiated, and the desire to help those who may already be involved in the situation; it is discussed in this chapter.” Therefore homosexuality is wrong (Kimball 1993).
ReferencesFrankenberg, Ruth, and Ruth Frankenburg. 1993. The social construction of whiteness: White women, race matters. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Kimball, Spencer W. 1993. The miracle of forgiveness. Salt Lake City: Bookcraft Pubs.
Ore, Tracy E, and Saint Cloud State. 2013. The social construction of difference and inequality: Race, class, gender, and sexuality. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages.
Strasser, Max. 2014. Newsweek. Retrieved December 9, 2016 (http://europe.newsweek.com/top-twelve-most-homophobic-nations-230348?rm=eu).